Imitations of ancient jade products of the Qing era (1636-1912) in the collections of Russian museums

Van Tsi Postgraduate student, Department of Art History, St. Petersburg State Art and Industrial Academy named after A.L. Stiglitz 191187, Russia, Sankt-Peterburg avtonomnaya oblast', g. Saint Petersburg, Solyanoy per., 13. 386944349@qq.com Other publications by this author

Since the period of High Antiquity, the rarity and high cost of jade have made it a symbol of everything most perfect, and first of all a synonym of human virtue ^[6]. Obviously, the need for collecting jade gave rise to the spread of imitations of ancient objects. Records of imitations of ancient art appeared even before the Song era, but in the true sense of the word, such works originated during the Song (Fig.1. X59393 — a lying dog made of greenish jade (Song era, height 2.5 cm, length 7.7 cm, width 4.5 cm)). Artificial coloring to imitate ancient products originated in the time of the Song, and under the Ming and Qing, this technique was improved — several popular coloring techniques are used up to the present day^[8]. In the "Yuji" ("Notes on Jade") of the Qing era, Chen Xing wrote: "During the Xuanye period of the Song Dynasty, jade merchants began to carry out forgeries: after processing and molding new stones, they painted jade, creating a sense of the natural effect of qinse "inclusions", which allowed them to sell products at a higher price"^[7]. During the Ming and Qing periods, both in quantity and in terms of technique and skill level, such products largely surpassed the works of the Song era.

Fig.1. X59393

Under the Qing Dynasty, the development of jade imitations reached its peak: at that time, stone processing techniques were extremely fine and refined. In the Qing era, under the Qianlong Emperor, significant work was carried out on the study and collection of ancient jade, which stimulated the development of collections of jade products. Among the jade objects of the Qing dynasty that have survived to the present day, there are a huge number of imitations. Under the Qing, objects of various eras were imitated: from the Neolithic to the Ming Dynasty ^[9]. At that time, imitations were performed very qualitatively according to illustrated catalogues of ancient objects of previous dynasties, for example, Song and Yuan catalogues, including "Guyu tu" ("Collection of ancient jade with illustrations") ^[10], "Kaogu tu" ("Collection of Antiquities with illustrations") ^[4], "San li tu" ("Three [books] about rituals with illustrations"), "Guyu tupu" ("Illustrated catalog of ancient jade"), etc. Imitations of this time mainly copied the artistic styles and technical features of ancient products. Most of the products were subjected to artificial "aging", some works are even comparable in their beauty with ancient objects. For example, imitations of Han products in the Qing period were smooth and shiny, intensely polished, with obvious lines and reliefs, expressive images, in terms of technique significantly surpassed the objects of the Song era.

Research and knowledge of the varieties and features of imitations of ancient jade made under the Qing is extremely important for accurate attribution of products. The creation and development of imitations of antiquities under the Qing reflected the economic development and the level of craft skill of the era. In addition, a comprehensive study of the historical process of the development of imperial jade of the Qing era is extremely relevant.

The purpose of this study is to study imitations of ancient jade products of the Qing era and to identify the artistic and stylistic, ideological and artistic originality of the plots. Objectives of the article: first of all, to investigate and analyze the plots and techniques of processing jade imitations of ancient jade products of the Qing era. Secondly, to clarify the study of the historical process of the development of imitation jade of the Qing era from the point of view of typology.

Based on the analysis of a significant number of products, all imitations of the Qing era can be divided into the following types:

1. Imitations of jade objects of the Shang era (1600-1046 BC). Among the ancient works from the Qianlong collection of the Qing Dynasty, there were many exhibits from the Shang period or even earlier eras. The jade of the Shang Dynasty served as an important practical basis for imitating ancient objects under the Qing. Imitations of Shan products made by Qing masters echoed the originals in form, decor and style — only in terms of technology were the shortcomings of handmade work leveled and more subtle and skillful methods of stone processing used.

Most of the products of the Qing era focused on bronze vessels for wine of the Shang dynasty, for example, Jue cups and gu bowls. By comparing two exhibits — the bronze cup of Jue under the number G76960 (Fig.2. Height 21.1 cm, width 16 cm, weight 0.76 kg) and the jade cup of Jue under the number GMV KP 1705 (Fig.3. height 12.2 cm), it can be found that the two objects are similar in shape: they have three legs and a gutter, two racks in the form of mushrooms are located between the mouth and the gutter, and the bowl body is decorated on all sides with images of animal faces and ornaments in the form of lightning. By means of comparative analysis, it can be determined that the jade cup as a whole echoes the shape of the bronze jue, but loses its applied function and becomes only a decorative object. The jade wine cup gu is a type of ritual wine cup with a high biconical round body in cross-section, expanding downwards and upwards. The design of jade utensils mainly echoed the shape of bronze vessels, the appearance of a sense of reverence for antiquity and the development of copying standards are clearly visible^[12].

        Fig.2. G76960 Fig.3. GMV KP 1705 Fig. 4. GMV KP 13146/1 11832/1 I

There was a variety of this vessel, having a square shape in cross-section, with sharp protruding edges, called fangu ^[5]. The exhibit of imitation of the vessel under the number GMV KP 13146/1 11832/1 I (Fig. 4. height 19.5 cm, dm. 11.2 * 6.4) — is distinguished by a high body, a tulip-shaped mouth, a thin body, a square base, with four protrusions on each leg. The neck and legs are decorated with modified ornaments in the form of chanwen cicadas directed upwards, images of animal faces are made on the body, which reproduce the decors on ancient bronze objects. The walls of the bowl are stable — now it is not dishes for wine, but a vessel for placing objects, jewelry. It is obvious that in the Qing era, the forms of bronze utensils of the Shang dynasty were mainly borrowed and imitated, while some innovations and improvements were carried out in terms of form and function, which can be recognized as a specific feature of the era.

2. Imitations of jade objects of the Han era (202 BC-220 AD). Collectors of ancient jade of the Qing era had a deep understanding and were able to accurately identify the products of the Han dynasty. Clear ideas about Han jade formed the basis for the production of products under the Qing, so there was a large number of imitations. As a rule, Qing masters copied bi's ring-shaped jade regalia, jade pendants, alcohol dishes and animal figures.

Let's take for comparison an exhibit from the collection of the Museum of the Forbidden City of Gugun X18901 (Fig.5.) — a ring—shaped bi regalia with the image of a one-legged dragon kuilun and silkworm caterpillars, dated to the Han era - and bi regalia under the number MAE 2790-15 (Fig.6.) from the collection of the Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography of the Russian Academy of Sciences (MAE RAN). Both regalia are made of greenish jade, there are images of the kuilun dragon on them — this is the most ancient ornament in the form of a dragon that appeared on jade objects.

           Fig.5.X18901 Fig.6.MAE 2790-15

Black and brown spots are found on the Han jade regalia, an ornament in the form of a kuilong dragon is made on the outer ring, a traditional Chinese ornament in the form of sprouted grains is made on the inner ring, the middle is decorated with an ornament in the form of a narrow strip of rope, which is also referred to as a twisted or cord ornament. A rhombic lattice and hieroglyphs "?" ("two") are engraved above the dragons in the yinke technique.

On the imitation of ancient jade under the number MAE 2790-15, rather rough and schematic lines were made, designed to convey the ornament in the form of a kuilun dragon — the master sought only to reproduce the outlines, but did not work out the ornament in detail, as a result of which it became more geometric and began to intersect with parallel lines in the center of the regalia, representing a secondary decor. In general, the imitation was done rather roughly, and the work with the cutter was carried out very hastily.

A comparison of the two items reveals some similarities in terms of form and decor, but the time of production and function, as well as the symbolic content, determined the essential differences between the Han era regalia and its imitation.

In addition, let us consider as an example a Table decoration in the form of paired bi discs on a stand under the number GMV KP 26563/1 16658/1 I (Fig. 7. the length of two is 28 cm) dated to the XIX century. Such a decoration in the form of paired bi discs is similar in shape to the paired discs found in the tomb of the ruler-wang of the principality of Southern Yue. Many researchers have noted that such paired discs appeared only during the Qing Dynasty, however, an archaeological find during the excavation of the tomb of the Prince of Southern Yue — paired discs with an ornament in the form of sprouted grains ^[3] (Fig.8. length 12.4 cm, height 7.6 cm, diameter 6.2 cm, hole 2 cm, thickness 0.4 cm) It allowed us to conclude that such a form was found among the objects of jade carving art already in the Western Han period. During the Qing period, following the continuous progress of stone processing techniques, jade works became more refined and magnificent. Based on this, it can be concluded that the paired discs of the Qing era were also imitations of more ancient objects, in particular the paired discs of the Han Dynasty.

           .        Fig.

7. GMV KP 26563/1 16658/1 I Fig.8.

The paired bi disks of the Western Han period were created from stones naturally connected together, however, it should be clarified that the decoration under the number GMV KP 26563/1 16658/1 I was created using the "hohuan" technique ("living loop/ring"), i.e. two rings were artificially connected to each other through this technique. The hohuan technique assumed that the master first of all determined the place from which he cut out the necessary material, then used a tool corresponding in softness/hardness and cut out the excess parts of the jade material with the necessary force, organizing the location of the ring. This process required filigree precision and did not allow a single mistake: if the stone was damaged when cutting the ring, then the entire jade product turned out to be unusable. This made it possible to develop a technology for creating a so-called "living chain" - a movable and unbreakable structure - from a single piece of stone^[11].

The Hohuan technique of jade processing appeared no later than the Shang Dynasty, and during the Han period it was often used to create tableware or decorative jade. A table decoration in the form of paired discs from the XIX century from the collection of the State Museum of the East demonstrated the skillful use of this technique. Thus, Qing imitations of ancient jade reproduced not only the shape, but also the technique of making products.

3. Imitations of jade objects of the Song(960-1279), Yuan(1271-1368) and Ming(1368-1644) dynasties. Qing masters skillfully used ancient products as a basis, slightly changing and combining the shapes and decors of various jade objects into a single whole. As an example, consider a cup for musical ceremonies with handles in the form of standing people made of white jade under the number G 96198 of the Song Dynasty (Fig.9. height 7.5 cm, outer diameter 11-11.4 cm, base diameter 4.5 cm). Scenes of rituals with music are engraved on the outer wall of the cup, a relief ornament in the form of clouds is engraved on the inner wall, and on both sides the product is decorated with figures of standing people holding the mouth with their hands and legs resting on an ornament in the form of clouds. This form of cup decorated with human figures was extremely popular during the Song and Yuan dynasties. This jade cup came to the court of the Qing Dynasty early enough and was loved by the Qianlong Emperor.

Fig.9. G 96198

In the jade collection of the Museum of the Forbidden City of Gugong, there is an imitation of the Qianlong period — a cup of white jade decorated with figures of immortals — exhibit number X 7476 (Fig.10. height 9.3 cm, length 18.5 cm, diameter 11.5 cm), in its shape resembling the product discussed above. This cup is distinguished by smooth rounded walls, ornaments in the form of clouds and orthogonal elements are engraved in the upper part using the yinke technique, images of immortals wishing longevity are made on the body, and hieroglyphs in the style of an official letter to lishu are engraved on the bottom, which read: "Imitation of antiquity. Qianlong(), the Great Qing()".

           Fig.10. X 7476

In addition, in the jade collection of the State Museum of Oriental Art there is also a jade bowl with figures of people similar to this cup, but having a slightly different shape — an exhibit under the number GMV KP 1914 I. Round sculptures of people made of jade are made on the sides of the bowl, the body of the product is smooth and shiny, without carved decors. On the edge of the wide upper part of the bowl, there is an image of a bat lying on its stomach with its wings open, which forms the spout of the bowl at the junction with the product.

Fig.11. GMV KP 1914 I

After conducting a morphological and functional analysis, it can be concluded that, in all probability, the product had a lid, which turned it into a tea-drinking dish. Although this bowl repeated the shape of the jade cup of the Song era, however, in the shape, figures of people and decorative elements, one can trace the artistic features of the Qing era.

Upon careful examination, the specific features of the hairstyle and toilet articles of human figures forming the handles of the products are revealed. On a cup for musical ceremonies made of white jade from the Song Dynasty, female figures with "horns" hairstyles were made, in which the hair was divided into two or three equal strands, which were then fixed at the roots, resulting in bunches — this hairstyle was worn mainly by unmarried women. The hair of female heroines in imitation of an ancient product of the Qing era is put in a high hairstyle: collected entirely on the back of the head and secured with hair ornaments ^[2]. On the jade bowl under the number GMV KP 1914 I, figures of boys are made, their foreheads are clean—shaven, and the rest of the hair is fixed in the form of two knots on each side - this hairstyle corresponded to the fashion of underage boys at the beginning of the Qing dynasty. In addition, as a result of comparing the products of Song and Qing, it is possible to determine obvious differences in the clothing of the heroes. On a cup of white jade, the heroines are represented in voile capes on the shoulders, which did not yet exist under the Song. Voile capes began to be used as a garment at the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, the purpose of which was to standardize the court toilet system ^[1]. By comparing hairstyles and clothes, it is possible to more accurately determine the time of creation of works, in other words, these elements are an important basis for attribution of jade imitations.

A comprehensive examination of the similarities and differences of the jade of the Qing era, and also allows us to see that not only deliberate copying of antiquities is carried out in imitations, but also the introduction of artistic features of the era into the design, through advanced techniques and techniques, the improvement and refinement of the shape and decor of ancient products is carried out, as a result of which imitations acquire greater decorative and epochal characteristic features rather than the ancient objects themselves.