Abstract: The study of the cult of Asclepius has been the subject of significant research; however, its medical component still remains one of the most debated topics in contemporary classical studies. This article investigates the use and relationship between rational and sacred medicine in Asclepiadaea. Based on an analysis of the works of famous ancient healers—Hippocrates and Galen, the speeches of the Roman orator Aelius Aristides, as well as archaeological and epigraphic data, the author examines various aspects of this scientific problem. Special attention is given to contentious questions regarding the attitudes of physicians towards the cult of Asclepius and the god of healing himself, as well as the possibility of physicians being present in the Asclepiad and directly influencing the healing process. Furthermore, the author conducts a comparative analysis of various treatment methods typical of sacred and rational ancient medicine. In addition to general scientific methods of analysis and synthesis, the article widely employs comparative-historical, historical-genetic, and typological methods. Methods of terminological and lexical analysis of Greek and Latin sources are also actively used. A key conclusion of the article is the indication of the following fact: despite the clear distinction in the minds of visitors to the Asclepiad between temple servants and physicians, who were not identified with one another, it seems erroneous to speak of an antagonistic relationship between sacred and rational medicine. The sacred medicine of the Asclepiadaea, to some extent, contributed to the development and establishment of rational medicine by suggesting treatment methods to physicians who lacked the experience and knowledge accumulated at the Asclepiad over several centuries. Similarly, sacred medicine borrowed elements from rational medicine—what was considered best and most effective for healing. The conclusions of researchers regarding the level of medical knowledge of temple servants have also been corrected: according to the author, they must have possessed medical knowledge deep enough to interpret "sacred dreams" in a way conducive to healing.

Keywords: Asclepius, rational medecine, temple medicine, Hippocrates, Galen of Pergamon, Aelius Aristides, physicians, sacred dream, incubation, Asclepieion

Abstract: Large-scale archaeological work in recent years in Eastern Crimea and on the Taman Peninsula has highlighted the study of rural settlements in the Bosporus. The article addresses the challenges of identifying, typologizing, and classifying these sites during the initial phase of the rural settlement system from the 6th century to the first third of the 3rd century BCE based on archaeological data. The author analyzes the possibilities and limitations of using this information to distinguish settlements from other sites located in rural areas. Particular attention is paid to the difficulties arising in defining seasonal settlements. Based on an analysis of excavation results and individual surveys, an attempt is made to expand and deepen the typology of settlements developed by I. T. Kruglikova and A. A. Maslennikov, which proposed the existence of only villages and unfortified estates for this period. Additionally, the author discusses the prospects for classifying rural settlements. The research methodology is based on a comprehensive analysis of archaeological data regarding the monuments of the rural territory of the Bosporus, as well as information about the planning and characteristics of rural settlements. As a result, the author identifies key issues related to the identification of settlements, such as the multilayered nature of monuments, the presence of seasonal inhabited sites, low-profile structures, and variations in the quality of archaeological data across different regions. Furthermore, a refined typology of rural settlements is proposed, which includes three main types: standalone households (unfortified, block-type, fortified estates), villages (Greek and barbarian with linear planning, as well as block complexes known only from the settlement of Manitra), and settlements with elements of nuclear planning (fortified and unfortified "towns"). For Eastern Crimea, a four-part dimensional classification of settlements based on the number of economically active residents has also been developed. It has been established that data from the Taman Peninsula requires different methods of analysis due to the peculiarities of the preservation and study of monuments, which raises acute questions about the comparability of archaeological materials from the discussed regions. The results of the study create a foundation for further analysis of the rural settlement system in the Bosporus and for comparing settlement structures from different regions within the Northern Black Sea area.

Keywords: Bosporan Kingdom, rural settlements, archaeological surveys, Taman peninsula, Eastern Crimea, farmstead, village, fortified manor, settlement typology, Manitra

Abstract: The article presents a comprehensive analysis of the accumulated historiographical data on the emergence of Lower Don Meotian settlements in the delta of the Don River at the turn of eras, focusing on their construction characteristics in particular. The composition of this group of monuments is clarified, and questions about the reasons for their appearance related to political, economic, and natural-geographical factors are discussed, as well as their relationship with the Bosporan Kingdom, which influenced the features of their material culture. The main attention is paid to the history of the study of residential construction in these settlements, identified at various stages of their archaeological investigation, as well as the systematization and generalization of the information accumulated over two centuries of research. The goal of the work is to highlight and define the main features of the stages of forming ideas about housing construction among the Lower Don Meots. The research methodology is based on the analysis of archaeological data regarding the nature of construction in Lower Don Meotian settlements and the comparison of construction practices recorded at different monuments. The author distinguishes three stages in the study of these monuments. The first encompasses the 19th to early 20th centuries—a time of theoretical assumptions about the character of the material culture of the Lower Don Meots with almost complete absence of archaeological data. The second stage falls into the interwar period and includes extensive exploration work at a significant number of monuments, laying the groundwork for their systematic study in the future. The third stage began after World War II and continues to this day. It is associated with the accumulation of detailed data on residential architecture and construction techniques as a result of predominantly rescue excavations. The article describes the types of open residential structures (stone and adobe), their planning, the building materials and construction methods used, as well as details of the internal arrangement, such as floors, partitions, bedding areas, and hearths. The author emphasizes the existing gaps in the study of residential architecture of Lower Don Meotian settlements and the need to expand both archaeological and theoretical research to address them.

Keywords: Lower Don Meotian settlements, Meotian architecture, adobe dwellings, Kobyakovsky settlement, Lower Gnilov settlement, Sukho-Chaltyr settlement, Podazovsky settlement, Khaprov settlement, Tanais, Lower Rakov settlement

Abstract: The article attempts to assess the possibilities of the census books of the Dorogobuzh uyezd from 1659, 1668, and 1678 as sources for the history of socio-economic integration in the Smolensk region, which once again became part of the Moscow state as a result of the Russo-Polish war of 1654-1667. These census books cover the land holdings of monasteries and various categories of local service gentry, encompassing almost the entire territory of the district, except for palace lands. The study evaluates the informational potential of each book individually in terms of the quantity and social composition of landowners, typology of land holdings, accounting of households and taxable population, administrative and territorial division of the district, registration of settlements, wastelands, arable land, and other agricultural lands, as well as summarizing the census results. The research methodology involves applying a systemic approach. The entire volume of the census books was systematized, resulting in the identification of basic units of description and types of collected data. Comparison of the datasets across all three books allowed for conclusions about what the census takers focused on in each case and raised questions about the reasons for such attention. Although the books of the Dorogobuzh uyezd have already been the subject of source studies, previous observations were mainly based on the results of the censuses. The novelty of the proposed article lies in the complete analysis of the primary material of the census books. The data array does not lend itself to full formalization immediately, as it contains diverse and not always regularly reported information. Nevertheless, it has been shown that the books provide extensive opportunities for studying the dynamics of secular (especially szlachta's) and monastic land ownership, as well as the numerical and social structure of landowners in the Dorogobuzh uyezd in the second half of the 17th century. Further examination is warranted for the findings regarding the land ownership of female nobility and representatives of the Moscow service class. It has been established that the locations referenced in the census books can indeed be mapped using geographic information systems, despite the complex, unstable administrative-territorial division of the district. Preliminary conclusions were also drawn about the objectives of conducting censuses in 1659, 1668, and 1678 in the context of the policy of integrating Smolensk region into Russia.

Keywords: census books, household censuses, scrivener's books, tax-paying population, location, Smolensk szlachta, Smolensk region, Dorogobuzhsky uyezd, Russian-Polish war, integration of territories

Abstract: The subject of the research is the behavior strategies and relationships of the scientific intelligentsia of Czechoslovakia with state power after the "Prague Spring." The object of the research is the political and social life of Czechoslovakia in the period after 1968 (the era of "normalization"). The article is dedicated to analyzing the complex and multifaceted relationships between the authorities and the scientific intelligentsia of Czechoslovakia after the suppression of the "Prague Spring" in 1968. The main focus is on the transformation of the scientific community from loyal or apolitical to opposition against the pro-Soviet regime of Gustav Husak during the process of "normalization." The author identifies and examines in detail three main behavioral strategies used by the intelligentsia to adapt to the new political realities: Organized resistance and dissidence, emigration, and internal emigration ("silence"). The methodology of the article represents a comprehensive interdisciplinary approach that combines methods from historical science (genetic, comparative, biographical) with sociological approaches (analysis of social groups and survival strategies) and political science (studying the interaction between society and power). The empirical basis for applying these methods was a wide range of primary sources and scientific literature. The scientific novelty of this work lies in the systematization, comprehensive analysis, and emphasis on specific aspects of the relationship between power and the scientific intelligentsia after the Prague Spring. A comprehensive analysis of behavioral strategies. The author does not merely state the fact of repression but offers a clear and structured typology of the reactions of the scientific intelligentsia (resistance, emigration, "silence"). Specification of the subject of research through the "human dimension." The novelty lies in the focus on the fates of specific scholars (Hajek, Simecka, Janouch, Slik, Kolman, Groh, etc.). Through their biographies, motivations, and ideological evolution, general processes are revealed. Emphasis on ideological transformation. The author shows in detail how disillusionment with "socialism with a human face" led to a complex rethinking of the fundamentals of Marxism and socialist theory. This demonstrates the intellectual depth of the opposition movement. The author argues that the relationship between power and scientific intelligentsia during the period of "normalization" was a tragic confrontation. Unable to completely eradicate the dissent of the intelligentsia, the regime only prepared the ground for its future defeat, while the scientific community, having gone through trials, preserved itself for the future revival of Czechoslovak science and democracy.

Keywords: Prague Spring, Normalization, Scientific Intelligentsia, Czechoslovakia, Dissident Movement, Charter-77, Samizdat (Self-publishing), Emigration, Behavioral Strategies, Ideological Evolution

Abstract: The article is dedicated to the analysis of the historical preconditions and factors for the implementation of educational experiments in Soviet schools during the 1920s and 1930s in Leningrad. The study examines key stages in the formation of experimental pedagogical practices, their connection to the ideological goals of Soviet power, and the peculiarities of the socio-political development of the region. As a result of the historiographical analysis, the author identifies an insufficient reconstruction of the specifics of experimental practices specifically in the space of Leningrad. The subject of the research is the historical reconstruction of the preconditions for educational experiments carried out in Leningrad in the 1920s and 1930s, their causal relationships with the ideological and socio-political transformations of the region, as well as the transition of experimental practices from laboratories to the school space, their subsequent integration into the education system, and the gradual abandonment of experimental activity. Using a comprehensive approach based on a concrete-historical methodology, the author reveals the influence of pre-revolutionary pedagogical experience, scientific and pedagogical organizations, as well as socio-political transformations on the development of experimental practices. Special attention is paid to the characterization of experimental activity as a tool for forming the "new person," as well as the analysis of the specifics of implementing innovative methods and forms of education organization in the context of Leningrad. The article emphasizes the role of experimental laboratories, their transition into the school space and integration into the education system, as well as identifies the reasons for the gradual abandonment of a number of experimental practices by the early 1930s. The research is based on the analysis of archival materials, memoirs, and official documents, which allows for the reconstruction of the complex process of the establishment of the Soviet education system in the context of political and economic upheavals. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the role of educational experiments in shaping Soviet pedagogical policy and their impact on the development of the education system in Leningrad.

Keywords: Educational experiments, pedology, education policy, new person, school-communes, League of Education, labor school, public consciousness, public organizations, pedagogical psychology.

Abstract: The article is dedicated to personal relationship in the highest leadership of the CPSU, presented by the Politbyuro and the Secretariate. The leaders of the CPSU are considered as having both common traits due to their participation on the top of the political system and specialities brought by their career trajectories in the party. The relationship inside the highest leadership are analyzed together with the sociocultural characteristics, career trajectories, ideological positions, personal sympathies and antipathies of the leaders of the CPSU. The evolutionary proccess of the change of relationships between the leaders of the CPSU and its coinfluence with the political reforms of "perestroika" are considered together. The personnel rotation brought by both objective and subjective reasons is referenced as a side of that proccess. M. S. Gorbachev's person and personnel policy have the utmost attention. The article is written with a wide source material, including both documents of the party and personal documents. The relationship between the leaders of the CPSU and its influence on the political proccess of the CPSU is reconstructed on the basis of comparison of the authentic sources and memoirs. The attempt to analyze the leadership of the CPSU as a subject of political proccess and thus to define the role of the subjective factor in the reforms of "perestroika" is a core of the articles novelty. As a result of the research it is concluded that personal relationship in the leadership of the CPSU defined the state of the party during the end of "perestroika" in the USSR. It is revealed that the leaders of the party was inclined to assemble a team of reformists who would provide adecquate policy. Yet the personnel policy of the leaders of the CPSU were not free from subjective biases: the recruitment of newest leaders often was based on personal sympathies rather than professional characteristic. Even so the development of the crisis in the USSR brought on the avant-scene the discordance in the Politbyuro and the Secretariate. As a result, these factors led to the dissociation of the general secretary and his allies. The deisre to form a team of supportive reformists was not realized.

Keywords: Perestroika, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union, M. S. Gorbachev, Central Commitee of the CPSU, The Politbyuro, The Secretariate, A. N. Yakovlev, E. K. Ligachev, The USSR decline, Glasnost'

Abstract: The article is dedicated to the process of the emergence of joint-stock banks in the Russian Empire between 1864 and 1873. This period was characterized by a large-scale entrepreneurial movement, which was linked not only to a general economic upturn but also to changes in the legislative environment that allowed entrepreneurs to create new financial institutions. Of particular significance is the fact that the banks represented projects of various scales and profiles, from large commercial centers to regional initiatives, often faced with a shortage of capital and organizational difficulties. The research covers not only the banks that began functioning and proved resilient, but also the numerous projects that failed to materialize or ceased operations shortly after their establishment. Such an approach allows examining the banking system not as a result of the activities of only successful players, but as a collection of trials and errors that comprised the process of institutional development. The work employs statistical analysis of the approved charters and the subsequent fate of banks in dynamics and regional context. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the comprehensive coverage of the entire spectrum of joint-stock banking projects, which allows for a new perspective on the scale and nature of banking entrepreneurship. The findings demonstrate that the formation of the banking system was accompanied by a high degree of failure, which has previously been insufficiently addressed in historiography. The entrepreneurial boom of the early 1870s turned out to be short-lived, and its outcomes significantly shaped the crisis of subsequent years. Regionally, differences were identified between stable metropolitan banks and more risky provincial projects, especially in the south of the country. The results of the study underscore that the process of bank establishment in the examined period was complex and contradictory. The establishment of a new banking system proved not to be as favorable as suggested by the scientific literature.

Keywords: Russian Empire, Great Reforms, joint-stock banks, founding boom, banking system, statistical analysis, commercial banks, land banks, quantitative methods, historical informatics

Abstract: The article examines the French perspective on Romania's position in the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon). Both countries became something of "dissidents" within their blocks in the first half of the 1960s. France closely monitored the formation of Romanian foreign policy. The author notes that for a long time, Romania, whose industrial production grew fivefold during the first decade of Comecon's existence, had no significant disagreements with the Soviet Union. The first contradictions emerged in the late 1950s and were related to initiatives from the USSR and some other countries regarding the further development of economic integration within Comecon. By 1963, Bucharest's "special position" had already become public. The article is based on materials from the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs archives, most of which had not previously been introduced into scholarly circulation. It primarily concerns reports and analytical notes prepared by French embassies in countries of people's democracy. Romania opposed the specialization of production within Comecon, fearing it would hinder the country's industrial development and revert it to an agrarian path. Bucharest supported the development of East European cooperation along existing lines but categorically denied the possibility of deepening it. Ultimately, Bucharest's position became one of the main reasons for the failure of attempts at large-scale reform of Comecon in 1962-1963. The tone of French assessments of the Romanian position changed in accordance with the evolution of the French view on the development of integration in Western Europe. During the period of skepticism in Paris toward the EEC in the first half of the 1960s and the rejection of supranational trends, Romania's refusal to specialize production within Comecon and its blocking of organizational reform in 1962-1963 were interpreted in Paris as Bucharest's desire to pursue an independent policy and develop its own industry. Subsequently, as France became one of the driving forces behind European integration, the prevailing opinion in French diplomatic circles would be that Bucharest was, in fact, blocking the development of integration in Eastern Europe without offering any concrete solutions.

Keywords: CMEA, Romania, France, Integration, Cold War, People's democracies, USSR, Socialist camp, Eastern Europe, Production specialization

Abstract: The article reveals the topic of the Stalag 309, which was established in 1941 in the band of the German army "Norwegen", and subsequently had dozens of branches. It became the only German Stalag located entirely on the territory of Finland, as well as in the areas of two modern subjects of the Russian Federation. Despite the large camp network that has been created, Russian historical science has not yet identified the specifics of its work in the Arctic. Based on German documents, stored in Bundesarchiv, the article for the first time dynamically characterizes the general activity and structure of the Stalag 309 in 1941. The paper presents chronological changes in the structure of the Stalag. The conditions of detention of Soviet prisoners of war and their evolution are characterized, and the provision of the German Stalag is compared with Soviet prisoner-of-war camps. An attempt is being made to determine the number of prisoners held in Stalag 309. The deterioration of conditions of detention of prisoners is shown, especially in the autumn and winter of 1941. The author characterizes the reasons for the deterioration of the prisoners' situation: hostility and criminal attitude based on the ideas of Nazism, the resulting formal refusals to follow the Geneva Convention of 1929, also sharp deterioration in the supply of the Norwegian army and the onset of cold weather in the uninhabited Arctic. Separately, the author dwells on the issue of crimes against prisoners committed by the camp's leadership and other military personnel of the Wehrmacht or the Finnish army. A range of complex issues requiring further investigation is being determined. The article will be useful for studying the events of the Great Patriotic War in the Arctic, as well as for clarifying the history of crimes committed by Nazi Germany.

Keywords: The Great Patriotic War, Polar region, Prisoners of war, Concentration camps, Karelo-Finnish SSR, Army, War crimes, Finland, Lapland, Murmansk

Abstract: This article examines the formalization of the concept of using Soviet industrial cooperation enterprises for military-industrial production and highlights some practical steps taken by the Soviet party and government leadership in this direction. By incorporating previously neglected records of the Military Department, the All-Russian Union of Industrial Cooperation, and the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR from the collections of the State Archives of the Russian Federation, the Russian State Archive of Economics, and the Russian State Military Archive into scholarly research, an attempt is made to characterize the main trends in the process of integrating the cooperative industry into the USSR military-industrial complex. The purpose of studying the process of engaging industrial cooperation in national defense is achieved by identifying the main forms of military production, as well as identifying the specifics of this production in the case of kustokpromkooperativnykh artels. The study is based on a historical and descriptive method; during the study, the author applied GIS mapping using the QGIS software package to visualize the information found in the documents. The author's analysis suggests that Soviet industrial cooperation was comparable to state industry in terms of the legal and regulatory framework governing military-industrial production, including labor reservations at enterprises, food supplies for workers in industrial cooperative workshops producing military goods, and the easing of taxes on government goods and services. However, documents indicate that already in the late 1920s and early 1930s, industrial cooperation faced the problem of a lack of raw materials and semi-finished products for high-quality and timely production for the army and navy. While the state formally promised to expedite the delivery of these raw materials, it failed to do so, which negatively impacted military production.

Keywords: Soviet industrial cooperation, handcraft-industrial cooperation, cooperatives, cooperative industry, military-industrial complex, VPK, military alert, mobilization, mobilization's plans, military orders

Abstract: The article is devoted to the study of the processes of forming the energy base of industry in the Russian Empire in the second half of the 1870s – a period preceding the onset of the industrial boom at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. The work examines the spatial and sectoral features of the distribution of steam engines. Based on statistical materials from the Central Statistical Committee (CСK), an analysis of the capacity of steam engines installed at enterprises in various sectors and regions of the country is conducted. Special attention is paid to the origin of the equipment, analyzing the technical parameters of imported and Russian machines, and the differences in their capacity. The conducted study allows for clarification of the relationship between the use of domestic and imported steam engines and defines the role of Russian engineering enterprises in meeting the domestic demand for steam boilers and engines. The source base consists of the "Materials for the Statistics of Steam Engines in the Russian Empire," collected under the CСK program between 1875 and 1878. Based on these materials, the capacity indicators of steam engines per enterprise for various sectors and provinces, as well as the share of Russian and European equipment in the overall capacity structure of steam engines, were calculated. Most studies lack a statistically grounded characterization of the extent of the distribution of Russian steam engines in industry, including by sectoral and regional cuts. The scientific novelty of the work lies in the comprehensive use of CСK data to reconstruct the sectoral and regional structure of steam engine use in Russia in the second half of the 1870s, when the prerequisites for the gradual strengthening of the production potential of Russian industry began to form. According to data from 1875-1878, 55% of the total number of steam boilers installed at Russian enterprises, 27% of the total number, and 25% of the total capacity of steam engines were equipment from domestic producers. Considering this stage allows for clarification of the nature of technological transformations in the Russian economy and identifying the prerequisites for the formation of a new energy base in industry on the eve of the industrial boom at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.

Keywords: Russian Empire, Central Statistical Committee, Industrial statistics, Industrialization, Energy base, Steam engines, Mechanical engineering, Metallurgy, Economic policy, Protectionism

Abstract: The article examines the methods and sources used to study the history of scientific dynasties in Russia. Using the family of Academician and statistician Petr I. Köppen (1793–1864) as a case study, it explores approaches that make it possible to reconstruct the formation and transmission of scientific values, professional norms, and research practices within a family context. The author draws on the concepts of Pierre Bourdieu, Robert Merton, and Bruno Latour, applying them to the analysis of scientific dynasties. These methodological frameworks open new perspectives for studying various types of sources related to the Köppen family — autobiographical writings, correspondence, memoirs, and materials from personal archival collections. The study focuses on the research potential of combining theoretical and source-based approaches to the history of scientific families. The research employs historical, biographical, and sociocultural methods in conjunction with source analysis. The author concludes that the study of scientific dynasties requires the integration of theoretical and historiographical approaches. This synthesis makes it possible to view the scientific family not merely as a set of individual biographies but as a social institution in which professional norms, research skills, and academic values are formed and transmitted. The case of the Köppen family demonstrates how science became part of everyday life and how education and family interaction contributed to the preservation and development of research traditions. This approach broadens our understanding of Russian science in the nineteenth century by emphasizing the human dimension of academic life — the continuity of generations, domestic conditions, and emotional contexts in which scientific interests took shape.

Keywords: history of science, scientific dynasties, scientific family, history of statistics, Petr Köppen, Fedor Köppen, Vladimir Köppen, Imperial Academy of Sciences, scientific tradition, academic culture

Abstract: The article explores the history of the establishment and development of the Bulgarian Commercial Steamship Company in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Due to a number of reasons and challenging political circumstances, Bulgaria became the last Balkan country to have its own national merchant fleet. The government of S. Stambolov, which came to power in 1887, considered it necessary to develop the state in a European manner, which implied carrying out significant socio-economic transformations needed for the modernization of the country. The issue of expanding trade opportunities also came to the forefront, especially as neighboring states with similar socio-economic development were establishing trade with leading European countries and striving to expand railway routes within their territories, as well as paying attention to river and maritime transport. This study employs a historical-descriptive method, allowing for the uncovering of the complex process of the formation and development of the Bulgarian merchant fleet, highlighting the main stages and emerging challenges. The scientific novelty of the work is connected with the inclusion of unpublished archival materials that demonstrate the keen interest and attention given to the activities of the Bulgarian Commercial Steamship Company by Russia. The Bulgarian Commercial Steamship Company was a small enterprise that arose from the private initiative of the trading circles in the city of Varna. Its role in the country's economic development was not particularly significant, but nonetheless, the history of its creation and development during the late 19th and early 20th centuries is an integral part of Bulgarian history and reflects certain traits of national character. As a result of the research, it has been convincingly shown that the development and support of the Bulgarian Commercial Steamship Company by the Bulgarian government was consistent and principled.

Keywords: Bulgaria, the Balkans, Russia, steamship company, the Danube, the Black Sea, trade, The Ottoman Empire, economic history, foreign relations

Abstract: The author of the presented article analyzes the features and directions of development of historical politics as wars of memory in modern conflict societies of the Middle East in the Yemeni contexts. It is assumed that the conflict in Yemen is stimulated not only by social, political and economic reasons, but also by contradictions based on mutually exclusive ideas about the past. The author shows that wars of memory are characteristic of both relations between countries of the region and individual societies. The aim of the article is to analyze how the collective historical memory of Yemen develops in a conflict society. Methodologically, the article is based on the interdisciplinary historiography of historical memory and historical politics. The novelty of the study lies in the comparative study of wars of memory as a factor in the development of historical politics and memorial cultures in modern politically unstable and unstable societies of North Africa and the Middle East. The article shows that 1) different visions and versions of Yemeni history and past stimulate political conflicts, 2) Yemeni political elites are involved in the process of history manipulation, which stimulates the instrumentalization of the past, turning it into a political resource, 3) memory wars in Yemen stimulate the nationalization of history. It is assumed that the processes of building a nation-state in Yemen are not complete, which forces the ruling political elites to use the symbolic potential of history as a mobilization resource. It is shown that history has become a symbolic battlefield, and memory wars have become a universal form of development of memorial cultures. The author believes that 1) the elites actively use the symbolic resources of history and will continue this policy in the near chronological perspective, 2) hypothetically military-political conflicts can be resolved, which will turn history into a battlefield, since contradictions cannot be completely overcome, 3) memory wars can become a universal form of internal and external communication of conflicting societies.

Keywords: Middle East, Yemen, conflicts, politics of the past, historical policy, historical memory, memorial culture, nationalism, Islam, memory wars

Abstract: The author examines the question of the origin of the ethnonym "kista", which is found in the sources of the XVI–XIX centuries as one of the names of the Vainakh tribes. According to a number of researchers, the term "kustk", found in the "Armenian geography", is also a designation for the ancestors of the Nakh peoples. The purpose of the article is based on the etymological analysis of the ethnonym "kists", as well as the analysis of historical and historiographical sources, to show the connection of this term with such ancient ethnonyms of the Near East as "Chaldeans (Chaldeans)", "Kassites" and "Kuti (Guti)", as well as with one of the names of Colchis (and the city in in this country) by ancient authors – "Kitea". In addition, the article attempts to link the ethnonym "Khaldi" with the name of one of the oldest cities in the world "Eridu". When studying this issue, the work used historical-genetic, historical-chronological, narrative, historical-comparative and comparative methods. In the course of the study, the author comes to the conclusion that the ethnonym "kists" is the Georgian form of the name of the ancient tribes of Ubeyda, who were called kaɬdu by neighboring peoples (and its variants: kaśdāy/kaśdim/kaššū), and later mostly switched to Semitic. According to the author, the name "cysts" was borrowed by the ancestors of modern Georgians from the language of one of the Semitic peoples with whom they were neighbors in ancient times. At the same time, a comprehensive analysis of written sources and ethnographic material conducted by the author shows that the term "cysts" is associated only with a certain part of modern Ingush, Chechens and Batsbians. The novelty of the research lies in the fact that for the first time the comparison of the term "cysts" with the ancient ethnonym "Chaldeans (Chaldeans)" is carried out, conducting a thorough analysis of a large volume of historical and historiographical sources. The author also outlined promising areas for further research on this issue.

Keywords: Cysts, kutia, Chaldeans, Alarodia, halards, ards, gels, cola, khals, Kitea

Abstract: The article analyzes the evolution of the "soft power" tools of the United States in the South Caucasus from 2010 to 2024, focusing on the transition from humanitarian grant programs by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to institutionalized lobbying. Based on an extensive empirical foundation – 412 OSF and NED grants, 57 FARA contracts, 124 congressional hearing transcripts, and 38 semi-structured interviews–the study identifies the factors that determined the three-phase dynamics of soft power. The novelty of the work is reflected in the comparative analysis of the effectiveness of grant and lobbying mechanisms, measured by the "lobby-induced risk" (LIR) index, as well as in the mapping of networks of influence using social network analysis. The practical significance relates to the development of indicators for preventing escalations and recommendations for the national security strategies of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. Methodologically, the study compares qualitative data on cultural exchange programs with statistics on lobbying disclosures under the Foreign Agents Registration Act. Source triangulation is employed, where quantitative indicators (the volume of allocated grants, the number of mentions of the South Caucasus in congressional hearing transcripts) are correlated with narrative analysis of foreign policy papers. A quasi-causal procedure QCA (Qualitative Comparative Analysis) is used. The novelty of the work is demonstrated by the comparative analysis of the effectiveness of grant and lobbying mechanisms, measured by the "lobby-induced risk" (LIR) index, as well as the mapping of influence networks through social network analysis. The practical significance relates to the development of indicators to prevent escalations and recommendations for national security strategies of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. The main conclusions indicate that the evolution of American soft power in the South Caucasus is progressive: from humanitarian grants to institutionalized lobbying with a strong defense content. The identified LIR index shows a statistically significant correlation between the volumes of lobbying expenditures and the likelihood of armed incidents. The practical contribution of the work consists of proposals to reduce lobby-induced risks, primarily through enhancing transparency and developing multilateral security formats (OSCE, EU Global Gateway). Further research could compare the American model of soft power with the Chinese and Turkish models for a comprehensive understanding of influence in the region.

Keywords: South Caucasus, Non-governmental organizations, Lobbying, USA, regional security, risk indicator, soft power, OSF, NED, FARA

Abstract: This article analyzes the image of Austria-Hungary as shaped by journalists at the weekly satirical magazine Novy Satyrikon during the first months of World War I (July–December 1914), when the Russian Empire was engaged in active military conflict with the Triple Alliance in the European theater of war, and the Habsburg Empire was one of its main adversaries on the Eastern Front. During the period under study, Novy Satyrikon correspondents devoted close attention to Austria-Hungary, its political and military characteristics (distinguishing features), in their publications. Historical-genetic and historical-comparative research methods were used in writing this work. The scientific novelty of this study is determined by its interdisciplinary nature, which combines the study of specific historical material and consideration of the theoretical problem of the formation of the image of another state in the texts of one of the printed media of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the XXth century. The author concludes that the pages of Novy Satyrikon portrayed the Austro-Hungarian Empire as Russia’s foreign policy adversary, an enemy of the entire Slavic world, a provocateur of regional conflicts, an oppressor of its own and neighboring peoples, and Germany’s “little brother” within the military-political bloc of the Central Powers. A military-political alliance with Germany and entry into a new, large-scale war were, in the view of the Austrian government at the time, the instruments that would, with a high degree of probability, restore Austria-Hungary to its former economic and political might and prevent the collapse of the «sick» empire. In reality, the Habsburg Monarchy's participation in World War I only accelerated the demise of Franz Joseph I's «prison of nations».

Keywords: Austria-Hungary, the image of the state, historical imagology, international relations, the Russian Empire, information warfare, information confrontation, printed periodicals, magazine Novy Satyrikon, imperialism

Abstract: This study examines the contribution of the Grozny oil industry to the defeat of the Nazi aggressors. During the Great Patriotic War, the heroic labor of oil workers in Checheno-Ingushetia ensured the uninterrupted supply of essential petroleum products to the fighting Red Army. This strategically important task was made possible by the successful work of virtually every element of the region's oil industry. By June 1941, the Grozny Oil Combine trusts had already significantly fulfilled their oil, gas, and diesel fuel production plans. New types of petroleum products were rapidly developed, and competition for increased productivity was launched, exceeding planned targets for average daily production of aviation gasoline and average daily oil production. At the same time, Grozny oil workers participated in the construction of defensive fortifications and enlisted in the people's militia battalions. The primary methods we employed to study the topic under consideration were historical-systematic, statistical, and problem-chronological, which enabled us to conduct a scientific analysis of the republic's oil industry during the war years. The scientific novelty of the study lies in its attempt to analyze the role of the Grozny oil industry, in particular its oil producing and refining enterprises, in fulfilling state assignments during the war. Based on the results of the study, the author has drawn the following conclusions: firstly, despite the extensive destruction caused to the Grozny oil industry by German aviation and the two-fold evacuation of plant equipment to the eastern regions of the country, the city's oil workers made a significant contribution to providing the Red Army and the rear with petroleum products, which played a major role in achieving victory over the enemy; secondly, during the war, prompt evacuations and restoration work in the oil industry in the shortest possible time became possible, primarily due to the heroic efforts of oil industry workers in both the region under consideration and other parts of the country; Thirdly, it should be noted that the large-scale work of Grozny oil workers to restore industry facilities during military operations not only made it possible to successfully resolve the issue of supplying petroleum products, but also to create the necessary foundation for the further development of the oil industry in the Grozny region in the first post-war years.

Keywords: Great Patriotic War, North Caucasus, Chechen-Ingush ASSR, Grozny, front, defense, oil, industry, trust, prey

Abstract: This article examines the distinctive features of the image of Eastern (Rusyn) Galicia, as shaped by correspondents of the military journal «The Chronicle of the War of 1914–1917» in the pages of their periodical during the early years of World War I (1914–1915). This primordial, historical part of Russian civilization, forcibly «torn» from the Russian state in the second half of the 14th century, was presented in the pages of «The Chronicle...» as a region that, by the beginning of the Great War, had managed to maintain a close spiritual and historical connection with the Russian people and sought reunification with the Russian Empire. In their publications, the «The Chronicle...» correspondents also highlighted the fact that Eastern Galicia experienced over five centuries of socioeconomic, cultural, and religious oppression at the hands of the Austrians and Poles. During this period, a new East Slavic ethnic group, the Ruthenians, emerged on its territory, although they still considered themselves part of East Slavic civilization. Historical-genetic and historical-comparative research methods were used in writing this work. Historical imagology plays a special role in examining the image of Eastern Galicia and the mechanisms of its creation and maintenance. This approach involves a deep, comprehensive analysis of the specific historical causes and conditions of its emergence in the public and cultural consciousness of the Russian Empire in 1914–1915. The conclusion is that the periodical «The Chronicle of the War of 1914–1917» served as one of the tools for influencing the consciousness of the subjects of the Russian Empire during the First World War. This magazine contributed to the dissemination and popularization among its readers of the idea that Eastern Galicia is a historical region that, despite the deliberate external influence (Polonization and Catholicization) of the Polish and Austrian monarchies, retained its unique East Slavic identity, and therefore should be part of the Russian state.

Keywords: Eastern Galicia, Rusyns, nationalism, Austria-Hungary, Russia, First World War, magazine The Chronicle of the War, historical imagology, international relations, information warfare

Abstract: This article is devoted to the study of the NKVD fighter battalions of the Armenian SSR in the first year of the Great Patriotic War. The activities of the NKVD extermination units of the USSR served to protect internal order in the territory of Soviet Armenia. The object of the study are the extermination battalions and detachments of the NKVD of the USSR. The subject of the study is the functioning of the NKVD fighter battalions of the Armenian SSR in the first year of the Great Patriotic War (from July 1941 to July 1942). The research methodology is based on general scientific research methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, content analysis), as well as on special historical research methods (historical-typological, historical-genetic, narrative). The scientific novelty of the work consists in attracting archival materials from the Central Archive of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation and introducing them into scientific circulation for the first time. A special contribution of the authors to the study of the topic is a detailed description of the functioning of the NKVD fighter battalions of the Armenian SSR, as well as data on the deployment of battalions and individual detachments, the number of personnel and available weapons of the fighter battalions in the period from July 1941 to July 1942. Separately, the authors provide data on the process of combat training of personnel of the NKVD ASSR fighter battalions. In conclusion, the authors note that the extermination battalions and detachments of the NKVD of the Armenian SSR have been actively involved in the fight against banditry and the elimination of groups of armed deserters since the first days of the Second World War. However, the functioning of the fighter battalions was complicated by a number of problems.

Keywords: NKVD, fighter battalions, fighter battalions of the NKVD, Armenian SSR, Armenia, Transcaucasian Front, Red Army, banditry, rear service, Great Patriotic War

Abstract: The subject of the study is the memoirs of Kharkiv scholar K. P. Vlasov, dedicated to the German occupation of Kharkiv during the Great Patriotic War. This topic consistently interests historians. The aim of the article is to analyze the representation of the occupation of Kharkiv in K. P. Vlasov's memories. The factual information provided is compared with data from other memoirs. It examines Vlasov's designation of the dates for the beginning and end of the Kharkiv occupation, his observations regarding the attitude of Kharkiv residents toward the invaders, the description of the "new order in German style," accounts of the severe consequences of the Nazi occupation for the residents of Kharkiv, and other issues. Undoubtedly, any memoirs are subjective. However, the lack of an ideological component allowed the author to qualify them as a source with a high degree of objectivity. The research method is content analysis, through which the content of the memoirs was analyzed, leading to corresponding conclusions. It should be noted that this method is individualized, as it assumes the author's interpretation of the text. Interpretations by different authors may not coincide. The novelty of the research lies in the fact that K. P. Vlasov's memoirs are being studied in historiography for the first time. They have not gained widespread recognition because their author was not a prominent figure. The main conclusions of the article emphasize the significant source value of Vlasov's memoirs. The author underscores the undeniable interest in the detailed description of the memoirist’s observations on the attitude of Kharkiv residents toward the occupiers, the "new order in German style," and the severe consequences of the occupation for local residents. One conclusion is that Vlasov was a teenager during the war and could not remember everything he saw. The boy relied on his own visual experiences and narratives from adults. He virtually did not witness the armed struggle of Kharkiv residents against the invaders with his own eyes. According to the author, his memoirs mainly contain those facts that the memoirist considered essential and interesting for a broad readership. A comparative analysis of Vlasov’s memoirs and those of other Kharkiv residents (L. R. Alksnis, B. A. Gunder, I. D. Shamray, etc.) shows that they complement each other. The information from the examined memoirs will be useful for further research on the German occupation of Kharkiv.

Keywords: K. P. Vlasov, memoirs, Kharkiv, Kharkiv residents, Ukraine, occupation, Great Patriotic War, Germans, Hitler, children of war

Abstract: The article presents a comprehensive analysis of the state of the hunting and fishing industry in the Yakut ASSR in 1971, which marked the initial stage of the ninth five-year plan. Systemic structural and economic imbalances are identified, expressed in significant differentiation in the efficiency of various departmental systems. The dominant role of state farms under the Ministry of Agriculture contrasts with the low productivity of the consumer cooperative system and new state hunting enterprises. Special attention is given to the analysis of the territorial organization of hunting, demographic problems in the sector, the state of resource bases, and infrastructural limitations. Critical conditions of moose populations and a deep depression in the resources of forest and waterfowl are identified, as well as the increasing number of wolves that cause significant economic damage to livestock farming. The incompleteness of the process of institutional consolidation of hunting grounds and geographic differentiation in the effectiveness of protective oversight activities are noted. The materials of the article serve as a valuable source for studying the economy of natural resource use in the extreme natural-climatic conditions of the North during the period of developed socialism. The methodological basis of the research is built on the principles of historicism, systematicity, and scientific objectivity. A combination of general scientific and specialized historical methods was applied to address the tasks set. The main conclusions of the conducted research indicate that the territorial organization of the hunting industry reflected the extensive nature of the development of northern territories. Furthermore, socio-demographic indicators showed a deep personnel crisis: the failure to meet the plan for attracting hunters and the catastrophic situation with the training of young successors indicated a progressing aging of the hunting community and the risk of losing traditional hunting skills. Environmental monitoring also recorded the critical state of moose populations and a deep depression in the resources of forest and waterfowl, alongside relative stability in the populations of sable, elk, and reindeer. The increase in the wolf population caused significant damage to livestock, amounting to 493 thousand rubles annually. Additional damage was inflicted by infrastructural limitations, manifested in the transport inaccessibility of hunting grounds and the absence of primary processing points, leading to significant losses in production. Thus, by the 1970s, the hunting and fishing activities in Yakutia retained an extensive character with a pronounced dependence on natural cycles, necessitating a transition to intensification through strengthening the material and technical base, developing infrastructure, and addressing personnel issues.

Keywords: hunting industry, hunting economy, Yakut ASSR, transformation, traditional nature management, planned economy, wildlife policy, hunting supervision, hunting, Yakutia

Abstract: The subject of the research is the post-war period of the formation of the national system of design organizations. This stage was the final one in the process of establishing the principles of functioning of design bureaus in the system of scientific and technical organizations of the USSR. The article examines the general features of the activities of artillery design bureaus (KB) using the example of the State-owned Union OKB-43, which is a kind of typical organization that dates back to the turn of the 1920s–1930s and has gone through all stages of development within the framework of the system of design bureaus: from individual disparate inventors to design bureaus of a wide profile. and, as a result, to a narrow specialization in the 1940s–1950s. The complex of methods used included the processing of archival materials, historical and scientific analysis of fundamental works and the comparative historical method. The research resulted in the following results: 1. New data from state (RGAE) and departmental (Central Archive of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, Central Naval Archive) archives have been introduced into scientific circulation. 2. A general list of scientific research and development works by GS OKB-43 was identified, including orders from the Engineering Committee of the Land Forces, the Artillery Research Naval Institute, the Artillery Directorate of the Navy, and the USSR Ministry of Armaments. The activities of design institutions in the second half of the 1940s-1950s, considered on the example of OKB-43, have a number of common patterns: well-established cooperation with academic science; conversion based on consideration of current trends in the field of weapons and military equipment; the reorganization of inefficient organizations carried out "from above", while the effectiveness of work was assessed on the basis of strict reporting.

Keywords: history of technology, weapons design, design organizations, OKB-43, small arms and cannon armament, armament of fortified areas, curved barrels, dynamo-reactive guns, naval armament, coastal defense