Ecofeminism in the "Tao Te Ching": Natural Symbolism, Gender Critique, and Cultural Reinterpretation

Lyu Taoran Postgraduate student; Institute of Philosophy; Saint Petersburg State University Russia, St. Petersburg, Vasileostrovsky district, 11th line, house 34/47, room 21. st108348@student.spbu.ru Other publications by this author

The Tao te Ching, as a classic text of Chinese philosophy, has been attracting increasing interest in the global feminist context in recent years due to the idea of Yin softness contained in it and the gender images presented in it. Researchers in various scientific traditions — philosophical, cultural, and environmental — conduct active research, analyzing the metaphors of the maternal, soft, and feminine in the teachings of Lao Tzu.

In Russian Sinology, the work is significant Torchinov^[1]. He examines in detail the gender symbolism in the Tao te Ching, noting that the Tao is often likened to a feminine principle with a maternal essence — for example, the image of a mysterious female (玄牝), symbolizing the source of life and a receptacle. According to Tolchinova, the ideal image of the sage embodies the androgynous harmony of male and female principles. At the same time, Lukyanov^[2] in his 1994 work, despite the fact that he interprets Tao as the universal womb and uses the concept of womb in translation, does not develop a philosophical analysis of female images.

In the Chinese academic community, Zhang Zailin^[3] calls Lao Tzu one of the first thinkers to express ideas close to feminist ones. Based on the concept of the "embodied Path," he reveals the philosophical significance of feminine qualities. He Peyin ^[4] conducts a detailed textual analysis, demonstrating how Lao Tzu reinterprets traditionally negatively colored concepts such as gentleness and female, giving them a positive meaning and undermining the prevailing masculine gender order. The scientist emphasizes that Lao Tzu stands for the possibility of achieving holiness regardless of gender. At the same time, Liu Xiaogan^[5] adheres to a more restrained position: he warns against the excessive projection of modern feminist ideas on the ancient text and emphasizes the importance of interpreting the symbols of the Yin power in the context of the relevant historical epoch, and not as an expression of the ideology of gender equality.

In Western feminist philosophy, Taoist thought is also interpreted as an alternative to patriarchal ontological discourse. French researcher Lucy Irigarey^[6] in her book "Between East and West" criticizes the male bias of the Western concept of a single subject and, based on the Yin philosophy in the Tao te Ching, offers a model of gender relations based on the recognition of differences and complementarity. This approach promotes an ethical rethinking of philosophy from an intercultural perspective. Wei Qingqi^[7], developing the ideas of ecofeminism, notes that the concept of Yin in Taoism, as well as the images of the mysterious female (玄牝) and the god of fertility (谷神), form the basis for the development of holistic Chinese ecological feminism. This line of thought not only responds to criticism of the logic of conquering nature, but also reveals the theoretical potential of a feminized ethics of caring in the context of the global environmental crisis.

The Tao Te Ching and Environmental feminism

The Tao Te Ching was created at the end of the Zhou Era (5th century BC), during a period of deep social upheaval, accompanied by the disintegration of ritual norms and frequent military conflicts. At that time, political logic based on the pursuit of power, establishing order and conquests only increased social imbalance. It was in response to these challenges that Lao Tzu proposed the philosophy of Tao as a natural Path that transcends the struggle for dominance. He put forward the idea of following the natural course of things, contrasting it with human intervention in the natural order of the world.

The cultural roots of Taoist philosophy go back to the depths of primitive religious beliefs that developed in the era of matriarchal tribal communities. These early practices included the cult of nature and fertility, rituals related to ancestor worship, totemism, and belief in nature spirits. The most characteristic element of these beliefs was the worship of the feminine principle as the source of life and procreation^[8].

The Tao Te Ching originated as a philosophical response to the overabundance of civilizational development and the stagnation of hierarchical structures. Against the background of wars, social disorder and the destruction of the established order, Lao Tzu formulated the doctrine of non-action as a reaction to the crisis of social organization and an attempt to rethink life guidelines.

Ecological feminism, or ecofeminism (from English ecological feminism, ecofeminism), is a concept that is often seen as a modern expression of ancient wisdom. It was formed at the intersection of feminist, anti-war, and environmental movements in the late 1970s and early 1980s^[9].

As part of the second wave of feminism, which focused on family, work, and bodily autonomy, feminist researchers drew attention to how traditional cultural concepts connect women with nature: nature is perceived as feminine, and feminine as natural.

Rachel Carson's book "Silent Spring", published in 1962, attracted widespread attention to the problem of environmental destruction^[10]. The parallel between the vulnerability of nature and the female body has gradually become one of the key themes in environmental feminism. Francoise d’In 1974, Obonne introduced the term "ecological feminism" into scientific use. In his work Le femminisme ou la Mort ("Women and the ecological future") She argued that capitalism, based on male control of production, simultaneously oppresses women and destroys nature. The scientist called on women to play a leading role in global environmental transformation^[11].

Despite significant differences in historical and cultural contexts, both Taoist philosophy and environmental feminism rely on a critical analysis of the prevailing systems of power and are aimed at rethinking the relationship between man, nature and society. In response to the crisis of cultural models of their era, they proposed alternative philosophical approaches based on flexibility, fluidity and rejection of rigid hierarchy.

Nature and gender symbolism in the treatise "Tao te Ching"

In the Chinese philosophical tradition, the treatise "Tao te Ching" combines views on nature and gender symbolism in a unique unity. Tao is presented as the primary foundation and source of all things — devoid of form and name, manifesting spontaneously and independently. This understanding of nature is markedly different from the Western tradition, which focuses on its subordination and control. In contrast, Taoist teaching emphasizes the value of a soft inner strength capable of overcoming and balancing rigidity.

In the treatise, nature, associated with the concept of natural inactivity, appears not only as the primary foundation of the universe, but also as the highest guideline for life values. The concept of non—action does not mean inaction or passivity at all - on the contrary, it implies an understanding of the measure.: what should be done and what should be avoided is in accordance with the natural order and without unnecessary interference^[12].

The understanding of nature in the treatise "Tao te Ching" is based on the idea of Tao as the indivisible basis of existence. It includes two polar principles — yin and yang, whose interaction ensures the harmony of the world. All beings, following yin, strive for yang, and it is in this dynamic balance that the cosmos is born as an ordered whole. Lao Tzu describes Tao as the primordial force from which all things arise, and nature is one of its primary manifestations.

The twenty—fifth chapter of the treatise says: a person should follow the example of the Earth, which selflessly carries and supports everything that exists; the Earth should imitate the Sky, which impartially embraces everything with light; the Sky should follow the Great Path that extends to everything without exception; and the Path itself should imitate Nature, which selflessly gives birth and transforms all beings^[13]. Thus, it is emphasized that the Tao acts spontaneously and without external coercion, allowing phenomena to develop freely, change and return to their origins.

In this context, nature in the treatise "Tao te Ching" appears not as an unchanging objective reality, but as a dynamic process subject to the laws of self-regulation and internal development. The human will takes a secondary place in this process, and his actions correspond to the natural rhythms of being. The path of non—action is an expression of wisdom based on following the course of events, flexibility, and the ability to adapt to change. The resulting order is established not through control, suppression, or deliberate planning, but through agreement with the internal patterns of things that naturally come to balance.

In Lao Tzu's worldview, everything that exists is born from the Tao, which fulfills itself through the principle of non-action. It creates and maintains a world without violence and domination. This creation encompasses not only the physical, but also the ontological sphere, reflecting the continuous process of being. The treatise "Tao te Ching" describes a model of the world based on interconnectedness, nonviolence and the self-unfolding of the natural order.

The gender symbolism in the Tao te Ching is inextricably linked with the Taoist view of nature. Lao Tzu uses the image of a woman as a metaphor, revealing the key properties of the Tao — softness, hidden strength and the ability to nourish. The feminine principle in the text appears as a symbol of a life-giving source that ensures the continuity of the cycle of all things.

The feminine principle plays a special role in the description of Tao. Lao Tzu uses images of a mother (母) and a female (牝) to denote the fundamental basis of existence^[13]. These terms, which appear repeatedly in the text, symbolize the power of generation and nutrition. In chapters one, twenty-five, and fifty-two, they appear as images of the cosmic principle, and in the sixth chapter it says: "The mysterious feminine essence is the root of Heaven and Earth"^[13]. This poetic image emphasizes the identity of Tao and the feminine principle, pointing to its life-giving potential, nourishing strength and stability as the basis of everything that exists.

The symbolic system of gender in the treatise "Tao te Ching" is not limited to the glorification of femininity or motherhood. Images of women serve as a means of philosophical expression of an alternative understanding of power, being and relationships. In the Taoist view of the world, gentleness and apparent weakness are interpreted not as a sign of vulnerability, but as an expression of deep wisdom and the ability to be flexible and adaptable.

The forty-third chapter says, "The softest thing in the world overcomes the hardest"^[13]. And in the sixty-first chapter it is emphasized: "The feminine principle, being at rest, defeats the masculine, because it occupies a low, soft position" (牝常以静胜牡,以静为下)^[13]. These images and statements counter ingrained notions of power as dominance and violence, offering instead the values of non-interference, compliance and inner stability.

Such a revision of values opposes the dominant cultural paradigms based on force, aggression and the desire for domination. In Lao Tzu's philosophy, true stability is achieved not through suppression, but through acceptance, flexibility, and acceptance of the natural course of being.

The female metaphors presented in the text are not just a rhetorical device.: they are deeply embedded in the ontological and axiological structure of the Tao. These images reveal philosophical resources that allow us to rethink power relations and affirm the ideal of flexible and caring coexistence in the spirit of the key values of environmental feminism.

From a broader perspective, the concept of nature and gender symbolism presented in the treatise "Tao te Ching" reveal a deep potential for ecological philosophy. The Taoist worldview emphasizes the inseparable connection between man and nature, thereby forming a critique of anthropocentrism and the logic of domination over the surrounding world. At the same time, the elevation of the feminine principle asserts the values of gentleness, vitality and interconnectedness as the basis for peaceful coexistence.

These ideas are in many ways consonant with the key provisions of modern ecofeminism. They demonstrate similarities in the perception of nature, power, and ethical norms, opening up a space for philosophical dialogue between ancient Chinese thought and modern environmental theories.

Ecological feminism: towards restoring a positive connection between the feminine and the natural

Difference and multiplicity are considered as fundamental principles of the structure of nature, the world, man and social relations, as well as cultural and spiritual interaction^[14]. Ecofeminism insists on the need to redefine the relationship between man and nature, the individual and the other — based on respect for difference, recognition of vulnerability and mutual involvement.

The second and third waves of feminism not only contributed to the development of research in environmental and other related fields, but also revealed the key relationship between gender issues and the state of the environment. The consequences of climate change have a particularly acute impact on women, especially in developing countries, where they are heavily dependent on agriculture, have limited access to rights, and are more likely to be subjected to violence^[15].

From the point of view of ecological feminism, the exploitation of nature and the oppression of women are not isolated phenomena, but stem from a single logic of dominance rooted in the structures of androcentrism and anthropocentrism.

Environmental feminism primarily criticizes male centrism. For a long time, patriarchal culture associated men with culture, reason, and technological development, while women associated them with nature, physicality, and emotions, thereby reinforcing the idea of the naturalness of their subordinate position^[16]. From the point of view of ecological feminism, such a cultural construct not only serves as the ideological basis of gender inequality, but also justifies the subjugation of nature, reinforcing the interconnected system of oppression^[17].

Ecological feminism harshly criticizes anthropocentrism. From this point of view, nature is considered as a resource devoid of its own value, intended for exploitation in the interests of man. This understanding reflects the logic of instrumental reason, which is closely related to the capitalist economy, colonial expansion and the environmental destruction caused by them.

Vandana Shiva emphasizes that the union of the capitalist system with scientific rationalism leads not only to the destruction of nature, but also to increased oppression of women, especially in the countries of the global South, where women are most vulnerable to environmental threats^[18].

Based on the criticism of both androcentrism and anthropocentrism, ecological feminism offers a model of positive cultural reinvention through the restoration of the connection between women and nature. This strategy does not involve a simple return to traditional naturalistic views, but is aimed at resisting oppressive structures by identifying common features such as generativity, fluidity, and diversity inherent in both feminine and natural principles.

At the same time, environmental feminism rejects the simplistic notion of a woman's natural connection to nature as supposedly biologically determined. As Karen Warren emphasizes, the key problem is not whether a woman is closer to nature in her essence, but how society forms and uses this image to reproduce oppression^[19].

Consequently, the reconstruction proposed by ecological feminism consists in a critical revision of cultural models aimed not at consolidating stereotypes, but at affirming the values of vital creativity, fluidity and interconnectedness as the foundations for equal coexistence^[20].

There is a deep connection between the subjugation of women and the exploitation of nature. These phenomena are rooted in patriarchal ideological paradigms that belittle nature, giving it a subordinate place in relation to culture. Since women are traditionally associated with nature, their status is also underestimated, while men, correlated with culture, are given superiority ^[21].

Ecofeminist researchers emphasize that the key institutions of Western civilization — from religion and law to economics and science — have historically been formed in the interests of patriarchal domination, anchored as the primary political order of the world^[9]. The oppression of women and the destruction of nature in modern society occur within the framework of a single binary logic — the logic of dominance based on opposition and hierarchy. In this system, both nature and women find themselves in the other's position, being instrumentalized, marginalized, and subordinated to male centrism and power structures.

Ecological feminism offers an alternative worldview based on the recognition of the interconnectedness of all forms of life. In this perspective, nature and culture, feelings and reason, women and men are no longer seen as opposing and mutually negating categories. On the contrary, they are interpreted as interpenetrating, coexisting and mutually forming an integral system. Ecofeminism points out that the reality of our limited world, the limited female organic body, as well as the bodies of other animals, is subject to idealistic transcendence. Femininity has always been and remains a special human relationship to the organic body^[17]. Through the deconstruction of binary opposites, ecofeminism not only reveals the common roots of the oppression of women and nature, but also paves the philosophical way to building a more inclusive, environmentally oriented and non-dualistic ontology of thought.

Intertextuality and Reinterpretation of the Tao te Ching from the perspective of ecological feminism

The convergence of women and nature promoted by ecological feminism finds a conceptual response in the Taoist idea of the unity of man and nature^[22]. The Taoist tradition, using female images to express the continuity, nourishing power and inclusivity of the Tao, offers an alternative cosmological model in which woman and nature are endowed with active creative potential. At the same time, the Tao Te Ching emphasizes "softness and weakness surpass hardness and strength", as well as "whoever does not strive for victory wins"^[12]. These images celebrate fluidity, flexibility, and a creative principle opposed to violence and coercion.

In this context, gentleness is interpreted not as weakness, but as an expression of deep life wisdom, capable of overcoming resistance due to the ability to change. This calls into question the traditional ideas of life as a struggle, control and domination.

Similarly, Val Plumwood notes that in a culture shaped by patriarchal thinking, both women and nature are placed in the other's position. They are symbolically identified with meekness, caring, submissiveness and irrationality^[23]. However, in the Tao te Ching, the appreciation of the soft and feminine undermines such devaluing symbolic logic. Here, gentleness is not perceived as weakness, but is understood as a path of cosmic balance; the feminine principle is not opposed to the masculine as subordinate, but acts as a key force supporting harmony.

In addition, both the Tao Te Ching and environmental feminism reflect a similar worldview based on the principle of interdependence. In Taoist thought, the whole world is understood as an integral, dynamically changing system in which all the elements are interconnected. This implies the abandonment of the static and hierarchical concept of essence in favor of the idea of fluidity and belonging.

Similarly, ecological feminism asserts that man, nature, women, and the environment form a single, mutually supportive network of life, opposed to fragmented and hierarchical patterns of thought. The emphasis on interdependence, generativity, and integrity unites both approaches in the critique of reductionist knowledge and the desire to rethink prevailing paradigms in various cultural and civilizational contexts.

It should be emphasized that despite the fact that both nature and woman within the framework of male centrism are systematically constructed as subordinate others — objects of domination, use and representation ^[23], their automatic identification in analytics is not certainly productive. Precisely because they often symbolically merge into a single abstract image of the gentle other, endowed with such virtues as caring, tolerance and harmlessness, they are simultaneously deprived of the right to subjectivity and to express their own historical experience.

In this context, Greta Gaard introduces the concept of double otherness, which means not only the symbolic idealization of women and nature as the other, but also the actual concealment of double oppression in social structures: on the one hand, a woman is belittled by the patriarchal order as a natural being, on the other — hypocritically exalted in the discourses of ecology and morality^[24].

If we turn to the Tao te Ching, it becomes obvious that the close symbolic connection between nature and the feminine at first glance can be perceived as a philosophical statement of the value of feminine and natural principles. Formulas like feminine qualities can surpass masculine ones, and softness overcomes hardness, emphasize the importance of femininity as a source of vitality and cosmic balance.

However, it is precisely in this symbolic elevation that the paradox lies: the woman turns out to be deeply symbolized and cosmologized, receiving metaphysical legitimization as the embodiment of Tao, but at the same time excluded from a specific social and historical context as an active subject.

Such symbolic empowerment masks the mechanism of cultural exclusion: by sacralizing a woman as a generative nature or a gentle mother, it assigns her a normative social role and moral expectations. Thus, the symbolic fusion of woman and nature in the Tao te Ching is both a philosophical elevation and a political obscuration. Overcoming this structure of double otherness requires not only the liberation of the feminine from the symbolic order, but also the restoration of women as a full—fledged subject, both historically and ethically.

Conclusion

The analysis of the treatise "Tao te Ching" through the prism of ecological feminism reveals significant conceptual intersections between Taoist philosophy and criticism of modern hierarchical models of thinking. At the center of both approaches is the desire to overcome binary oppositions and the emphasis on the interdependence of all forms of life. The female images presented in the text — mother, female, mysterious female essence — are not just symbols, but key elements of philosophical ontology, revealing softness, generative power, and fluidity as principles of harmony.

The Taoist understanding of nature as a self-regulating and spontaneous system resonates with the ecofeminist critique of anthropocentrism. The feminine principle in the treatise is not associated with submission, but with life-giving activity and stability. Such a reassessment of symbolic roles offers an alternative model of power—not as suppression, but as the ability to preserve and transform.

At the same time, with all the philosophical depth of Taoist symbolism, the question arises of preserving the subjectivity of women outside the framework of metaphor. When the feminine completely merges with the image of Tao, it risks losing the concreteness of historical and social experience. In this context, it is important to distinguish between the symbolic elevation and the real inclusion of women as an ethical and political subject.

Despite these tensions, Taoist philosophy provides a productive basis for a critical review of cultural attitudes. Her ideas of non—resistance, respect for the natural order, and non—violence remain relevant in the context of the environmental and humanitarian crisis. The dialogue between the Tao te Ching and ecofeminist theory opens up the prospect of new ethical thinking — sustainable, non-hierarchical and inclusive.