Reflection of Cultural Values in Traditional Chinese Costume

Yan Tszin PhD in Art History Department of Art Theory and History, Moscow Pedagogical State University 109052, Russia, Moscow region, Moscow, Ryazan str., 9 yangjing@bk.ru Other publications by this author

Over five thousand years of development of the traditional Chinese huai costume, a system has been formed that has absorbed a wide range of connotations and rich cultural content. The traditional costume is the most important cultural symbol of China, a means of reflecting the way of thinking, needs and values of ancient Chinese society.

It has been formed throughout the history of Chinese society. Chinese traditional clothing embodies the culture, way of thinking, social needs, social values, as well as the ideology of traditional Chinese society. The traditional costume demonstrates the cultural heritage and wisdom of the ancient Chinese. Thus, Chinese clothing embodies the internal cultural content, values, as well as requirements associated with various elements that may relate to different eras in the history of China, as well as with various social groups and representatives of the hierarchical structure of society. At the same time, Chinese clothing culture contains a reflection of the concept of harmonious existence with nature, the search for balance, morality and etiquette norms characteristic of Chinese society of different eras. 

1. Objective conditions for the formation of the culture of Chinese traditional costume.From the point of view of objective conditions, China is primarily a mainland country where traditional clothing was formed and developed in a relatively closed environment to the outside world.

The Chinese philosopher Feng Yulan in his work "A Brief History of Chinese Philosophy" noted: "the ancient Chinese believed that the land of their state was the center of the world" ^[1,16c]. This worldview has largely led to the fact that the traditional costume culture in China has developed independently, gradually integrating other cultures, while placing its own culture at the center. In fact, one of the most important internal reasons comes from firmness in following the principles of one's own national culture and tolerance for the cultures of other peoples. The economic basis of traditional Chinese society was agriculture. For this reason, agriculture was put at the head of statehood, it became the basis of the culture of agriculture in China. On the basis of agricultural management, the economy and politics of the state grew. Based on this approach, in the course of the development of the culture of agriculture, the concept of harmony between man and nature was gradually formed, which became the most important incentive for the development of traditional Chinese costume, striving for a kind of imitation of the external and internal, the form and content of nature, forming a harmonious cultural content. Most of China has a monsoon climate with four distinct seasons. In such a climate, clothing also differed depending on the season. Multi-layered clothing, buttoned in front, was the main version of the suit. Clothes with a smell to the right and a double-breasted dress with a straight collar in the shape of a scarf became the main type of the hem structure of the suit. The structure of the hem of the suit also largely corresponded to the change of seasons and weather. The hem of the suit, wrapped to the right, embodied the concept of life and death of yin and yang, and also reflected the peculiarities of the culture of clothing in Chinese Confucianism, where the ritual was given special importance, and the right side was preferred. 2. Subjective conditions for the formation of Chinese culture of traditional costume

The above objective conditions determine the basic form of the Chinese traditional costume.

At the same time, the development and improvement of subjective conditions determine the direction of the development of clothing culture. Next, the cultural value of the Chinese traditional costume will be briefly analyzed in several aspects. 

2.1. Cultural values of ornaments of Chinese traditional costume and accessories

Ornaments, patterns, images on Chinese traditional costumes reflect the spirit of society and time, the fusion of cultures, aesthetic tastes, national character, class character of society, artistic style of the era.In addition, they also reflect the desire of the ancient Chinese for the unity of man and nature, through the change of ornaments, as well as the application of the principles of society management and hierarchy building based on the use of colors and patterns in clothing. At the same time, the hidden meaning inherent in certain patterns could fulfill many different internal needs.During the Epochs The slave-owning system flourished in Xia and Shang society, living conditions were difficult, cruel sacrifices were used during ritual rituals, and people expressed their worship of spirits, totems, and deities in ornaments of clothing. This formed the connection of a person with the Sky, i.e. with the surrounding nature. The sacrificial ritual system was finally formed in the Zhou period, after which came the turmoil of the Warring Kingdoms period. If in the Xia and Shang era the images were abstract, menacing and even sinister, then after that they transformed into lively, realistic ones. If in the Xia and Shang period mainly animals and zoomorphic creatures (Taote, dragons, phoenixes, tigers) were depicted, then in the later Zhou, in addition to patterns with the above-mentioned creatures and several geometric patterns, under the influence of Buddhism, patterns in the form of grass, flowers and vines also appeared (Fig. 1), and were no longer attached of particular importance is the image of primitive totems or patterns with magical symbols. Initially, a social organization based on consanguinity was widespread in Chinese society, the family was the unit of society. Such a social organization, combined with vital land resources, formed the feudal system. In such a social model, a class consciousness was gradually formed, in which the principles set forth by Confucius were subsequently established - humanity ren, justice yi, ritual li, wisdom zhi and others. The combination of these principles "subordinated the culture of sacrifice, clothing and jewelry, the system of rituals of the Zhou era and was considered as a means of restoring order in the Celestial Empire"^[2,40c]. On the crown, the clothes worn by the emperor for sacrifices, there were 12 traditional ritual patterns that were used to decorate six types of ceremonial clothing of emperors and nobles, including the sun, moon, stars, mountains, images on sacrificial bowls in the temples of the ancestors of zongyi, pheasants, algae, fire, rice grains, dragons, two types of fu patterns (black and white embroidery or embroidered pattern on ritual clothing of alternating blue and black lines) ^[3,46c]. These patterns became the embodiment of the feudal hierarchy, as well as a means of expressing one's reverence for heaven, earth and nature, reflecting the ancient Chinese concept of "universal service to the emperor." The ornament differed depending on the status of a particular person. Such a system was abolished in the Qin era, but restored in the Eastern Han era and functioned until modern history (Fig.2). On this basis, Chinese traditional clothing and jewelry express such principles of Chinese culture as grace, deep meaning, harmony. In addition, it was often possible to find various patterns in Chinese clothes depicting certain mythological creatures, such as spirits, magical animals, celestial beings, and so on. Han era ornaments were influenced by Chu culture and local beliefs. They had rhythm and energy, represented mythical hermits and fabulous animals. For example, the "longevity embroidery" found in Tomb No. 1 of the Western Han Dynasty in Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan Province, depicts a traditional Chinese ornament in the form of stylized leaves and herbs, dogwood, phoenix eyes on a purple, red and yellow background. Among the rapidly and rhythmically floating clouds, a phoenix's head looms, marking the onset of prosperity and happiness (Fig. 3) ^[4,77c]. The appearance of many new elements in the ornament, characteristic of other cultures, demonstrates the inclusiveness of Chinese culture, due to which Chinese culture absorbed and processed other cultures in the process of cultural integration. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties, there was unrest in society, at the same time Buddhism developed, Persian and Greek images of lions, honeysuckle patterns, ornaments depicting eight jewels, ornaments in the form of lotus flowers, etc. reached China through merchants. The mixing of cultures, reflected in the traditional costume, within the framework of the Great Silk Road connecting Europe and Asia, reached its heyday from the Western Han to the early Tang. A pearl pattern came from Byzantium to China, which merged with the Buddhist ornament of Baoxiang flowers and other oriental elements that decorated fabrics in the Han and Tang eras (Fig. 4).Unlike Western costume culture, traditional Chinese culture pays more attention to the symbolic meaning of ornaments.

Favorable patterns of the Qing dynasty demonstrate the spirit of the Chinese people and the subtlety of traditional culture, include lingzhi (a valuable medicinal plant), peach and chrysanthemum symbolizing longevity, peony symbolizing wealth and prosperity, a combination of lotus seeds and flowers symbolizing harmony and goodness, a monkey sitting on a horse, an ornament in the form of seas, rivers and rocks, symbolizing the stability of the empire, and many other favorable symbols (Fig. 5). The Belgian brand Dries Van Boten used these elements in his autumn-winter 2012 collection (Fig. 6). Thus, traditional ornaments have gone from striving for the "unity of heaven and man" to respect for nature, Chinese costume reflects the desire for harmony and unity.2.2 Cultural value of the color of Chinese traditional costume and jewelry

The use of various types of color in traditional Chinese costume culture also contains Confucian ideas about human harmony with nature and following the laws of nature. Along with the content of ideas about following the laws of nature, the color of clothing was also the main means of distinction in the hierarchical system of China. As a result of historical transformations, as well as against the background of an increase in the productive forces of society, Confucian natural philosophical ideas gradually spread in China, such as the masculine and feminine yin and yang, the concept of the five elements, the definition of yellow as the color of the emperor of China, whose power was opposed to the "barbaric" states around China, the concept of pure and color and color with transitional shades, as well as many other philosophical concepts related to the use of colors. All this has led to changes in the aesthetic psychology of color and its perception in society. Color began to play an important role in society. Ancient Chinese rulers wore clothes of different colors associated with a particular time of the year. At the same time, the "Theory of the five virtues" was widely used in the selection of colors in accordance with the principle of mutual generation and limitation of the five elements, which was also associated with the moral aspects of society (according to this concept, the five elements included such as metal, water, wood, fire and earth, alternation, as well as mutual the connection of which led to a change not only of the season, but also changes in Chinese society, a change of dynasties, rulers and other transformations). The five elements possessed their own colors, which were personified with them. For metal, wood, water, fire and earth, the following colors corresponded: white, green, black, red and yellow. At the same time, the preference for certain colors in clothing differed depending on the ruling dynasty or the traditions of the kingdom. For example, the ruler of the Shang dynasty (1554 – 1046 BC) Jingde-wang preferred white, the ruler of the Zhou dynasty (1045 – 221 BC) Hode-wang preferred red, while the emperor of the Qin dynasty (221 – 206 BC) ceremonial clothes of black and red color were used, because during the Qin Dynasty black color was considered more aesthetic (Fig. 7). After the Qin Dynasty period, society switched to a feudal system with a strict hierarchy. Playing an important role in identifying members of a particular estate, as well as according to the rules of noble etiquette, the color of clothing was directly used to identify the class of dignitaries, the rank of nobles, becoming a symbol of the hierarchical differences of the ruling class in China. During the reign of Emperor Wu-di of the Han dynasty (156-87 BC), the state adhered to a policy called "to eradicate one hundred schools and revere only Confucianism", which was aimed at the widespread consolidation of the norms of Confucianism, which was closely related to the concepts of yin-yang and the five elements. At the same time, against the background of the widespread strengthening of Confucianism, the idea of respecting yellow as the color of the ruler has gained maximum popularity in China. Thus, in the historical records of "Hou Hanshu" (The Late History of the Han Dynasty) in the treatise "Yu fu zhi" (A Treatise on chariots and robes), it is described that the emperors of the Han dynasty had clothes for ceremonies and for everyday life. At the time of the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, the emperor wore a tiara on his head, wore a thick black outer garment decorated with 12 ornaments, as well as the lower part of the scarlet robe. During the sacrifices to the ancestors, the emperor wore an elongated tiara, characteristic of the Han dynasty, wore the outer part of the ceremonial robe of scarlet color, and the inner part of the robe was purple with the addition of red. At the moment when the emperor wore a long tiara outside of individual ceremonies, usually the form of the emperor's upper garment was like a paofu, i.e. like a long robe with fur inserts. The color of such a garment could also differ depending on the time according to the lunar calendar, as well as beliefs in changes in the balance among the five elements. Thus, there were a total of five colors associated with the seasons of the lunar calendar. For example, for the first month of the lunar calendar, the emperor wore a turquoise-colored robe, for the fourth month of the lunar calendar, the emperor wore a red robe, for the sixth month of the lunar calendar, the emperor wore a yellow robe, for the seventh month of the lunar calendar, the emperor wore a white robe, and for the tenth month of the lunar calendar, the emperor he wore a turquoise-colored robe. All this demonstrates the special attitude of the ancient Chinese to the color of clothing, which was based on the internal connection between color and nature, which was also the embodiment of the unity of man with nature in the culture of Chinese costume (Fig. 8).

During the Sui (581 – 618 AD) and Tang (618-907 AD) dynasties, as tiaras, crowns and other headdresses that symbolized official positions and power were greatly simplified, the difference in the status of an official by color became even more important. For example, during the reign of the Sui emperor Yang Jian, a patterned robe of dark yellow color was used, worn by the emperor as a badge of distinction. In addition, the appearance of clothing at this time more clearly shows the class differences among the subjects. In the "Jiu Tangshu" (The Old History of the Tang Dynasty), in the section dedicated to Emperor Gaozong, it is noted that civil and military officials of the third rank and above wear purple clothes and gold or jade belts, officials of the fourth rank wore dark scarlet clothes, officials of the fifth rank wore light red clothes and gold-colored belts, officials of the sixth rank wore dark green clothes, officials of the seventh rank wore light green clothes and silver belts, officials of the eighth rank wore dark turquoise clothes, and officials of the ninth rank wore light turquoise clothes. During the Tang Dynasty, the rule was established that bright red and yellow colors belonged to the imperial power, while during the Song Dynasty, this rule was further tightened, that red and yellow colors could only be used among representatives of the imperial family. All those who violated this law were punished. During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the manpao robe (a robe with a dragon painting), which was used at servant award ceremonies, also played an important role and was associated with Confucian concepts of the five elements and the five cardinal directions. Often such clothes combined such colors, where red belonged to the south, black to the north, turquoise to the east, white to the west, and yellow to the center. All of these colors were the primary colors (zhengse) of manpao's attire, while the colors associated with purple, light green, purple, jasper, and light yellow were auxiliary (or transitional) colors (jianse). For example, in a common official long robe, colors originating from the elements (zhengse) were used as the main color, while auxiliary colors (jianse) were used to create ornaments and ornaments, which could include patterns in the form of dragons, plants, flowers, leaves, branches and clouds. Such a combination of colors allowed the colors to contrast with each other, enriching and highlighting the image of the wearer more vividly. In other words, all this is part of the deep inner content of the Chinese costume culture.In addition to the above-mentioned cultural values, which consisted in the colors of clothing, the award attire of qifu, which existed during the dynasty (the imperial court awarded worthy people with a special costume, among which clothing with dragon patterns was one of the highest awards in the Ming Dynasty) reflected the main and auxiliary colors associated with the five elements.During the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), the color of the emperor's ceremonial clothes personified respect for the ancestors, the earth, the sky, the sun, the moon, which expressed the desire for harmony with all things. Thus, the political divine status of the emperor's power was strengthened by the color of the ceremonial clothes. The emperor wore a bright yellow winter or summer ceremonial robe when he sacrificed to the earth and prayed for grain, and also wore a blue ceremonial robe when he made a rain sacrifice. During the morning prayer (sun worship), the emperor wore a red robe, while during the evening prayer (moon worship) he changed it to a white robe.2.3. Cultural value of the structure of Chinese traditional costume and jewelry

The earliest structure of the Chinese costume is the upper and lower garment, which adopted the symbols of heaven and earth, qian and kun (two opposite hexagrams of "Yijing"). The upper garment was black, and the lower one was light purple. In the period of Chunqiu and the Fighting Kingdoms, the shenyi robe appeared, which broke this tradition. In its structure, the lower and upper parts were separated. Such a costume was common before the Han era everywhere in China, worn by representatives of any class and gender. In Pingshan County, Hebei Province, a bronze base of a lamp from the era of the Fighting Kingdoms was found in the form of a figure in such clothes (Fig. 9). There is a fundamental difference between them, since the color and shape for shenyi play a ritual and ceremonial role. Under the influence of Confucianism, the cultural content of Shenyang was rich and diverse. The ceremonial attire of the shenyi, the black robes of the ruling elite of the Xuanduan of the Zhou era, the small ceremonial black and red xuanyi, the lower part of the xiachang attire differed depending on the hierarchy among the dignitaries. The ornaments and patterns with which the shenyi were decorated, as well as other items of ceremonial clothing and accessories worn by major dignitaries also varied depending on the rank of the official. The upper part of the shenyi garment was predominantly monochrome, while white cotton fabric was used in the inner lining of the garment. At the same time, such clothes from the collar, sleeves, and bottom of the lining were decorated with black silk fabric. Some elements of ceremonial clothing alternated between white and black. This was associated with the change of day and night, and was also conceptually associated with the alternation of yin and yang, which to a certain extent reflected the unity of clothing with the natural time of day ^[5,117c]. In other words, the color of the official clothes of officials and the emperor is associated with the peculiarities of natural phenomena. One of the main differences between ancient Chinese and Western clothing is that Chinese clothing did not specifically emphasize the curves of the body, while in the Western tradition, clothing decorated the shoulders, hips, and changed the waistline. Ceremonial attire was closely related to the reflection of the concept of zhongyun ("golden mean"), according to which a person should abandon extremes, for example, using too straight lines in clothes, hiding the naturalness of the body. Thus, Chinese clothing primarily sought to be more free and natural, so that a person would be in harmony with nature and spiritually developed. In addition, some parts of Shenyang also had certain cultural requirements, such as the presence of elements related to the time of the year according to the lunar calendar. It was required that the sleeves should be round, the collar should be square in shape, the back of the garment should be straight in shape. Such a structure in the manufacture of clothing was explained by Confucian virtues: justice, nobility, virtue, etc. ^{[6, 961-962c]}. The peculiarities of the manufacture of sleeves and the cut of ceremonial and ceremonial clothes also symbolized reverence for the emperor. At the same time, the square and rectilinear shape of the collar demonstrated selflessness and justice. The straight cut of the back of the garment symbolized honesty and sincerity. As an example, we can cite the shenyi robe from the time of the Chu kingdom, found in Hubei province (Fig.10). In Chinese society, according to the Confucian tradition, governance was carried out through the Li ceremonies, which largely restrained the vices of society. In this context, the shenyi robe was an external manifestation of etiquette and ritual, and also reflected the character and essence of the social stratum of the people who wore it. After the Han Dynasty, the colors and hidden content embedded in the shenyi robe began to gradually change, violating the previous orders. This type of clothing eventually retained only the shape in general terms, which included two elements, the lower and upper. Thus, later samples of shenyi's attire ceased to carry the hidden meaning of ceremonies and rituals, turning exclusively into an aesthetic element. Already during the Song Dynasty (960-1279), the garment of shenyi began to be actively used again. However, it no longer had the same meaning as before. The garment that appeared in this era became a symbol of Confucianism, but not a symbol of Confucian norms. For this reason, the dress of the shenyi, belonging to such epochs as Chunqiu, the Fighting Kingdoms and the Han, differs significantly from the later samples of the shenyi. At the same time, it is important to note that the shenyi of later periods was also not a copy of the traditional, earlier shenyi, since it had its own unique meaning.

3. Conclusion 

The cultural value of traditional Chinese clothing is a unique product of Chinese society. It is impossible to understand the cultural value of clothing only as attributes that meet individual cultural needs. The cultural value of Chinese traditional clothing should be considered dialectically from the point of view of the process of development of things. At the same time, one should take into account the fact that the cultural value of clothing also lies in serving a person regardless of the era. At the same time, the cultural value of Chinese traditional clothing was formed through constant development, integration and practice. The ability of the ancient Chinese to create cultural needs and cultural products is already an essential cultural value. Traditional Chinese clothing is an outward manifestation of Chinese cultural values. Regardless of whether objective conditions or subjective conditions are satisfied, the obvious fact is the rich and deep cultural value of traditional Chinese clothing. Various colors, patterns, ornaments and types of ceremonial and ceremonial clothing were designed to meet the social, political, psychological and cultural needs of ancient Chinese society. In addition, traditional clothing is closely related to the philosophical teaching of Confucianism, which acted as the main moral and ethical teaching, and is also associated with the auxiliary teachings of Taoism and Buddhism, which together formed a common moral, ethical and philosophical layer in Chinese culture ^[7,22c]. For example, such key concepts characteristic of these teachings as harmony between man and nature, following the laws of nature, moderation, benevolence and righteousness, respect for nature, as well as other life principles were expressed through traditional clothing. In addition, traditional Chinese clothing also served as the most important classifying element in the hierarchical system of China, being an external expression of political and moral ethics. By means of the external characteristics of clothing, a distinction was made in the classes of dignitaries, the ceremonial role of certain subjects of the emperor was noted, as well as rituals and state administration were carried out. All this has largely shaped the traditional culture of the Chinese people. The study of the cultural value of traditional Chinese clothing not only enriches the diversity of world culture, but also allows for a two-way study of the values of China and the surrounding world at a deeper level. In addition, the study of cultural values makes it possible to involve representatives of modern Chinese society in the cognition of the concept of the unity of man and nature, which can manifest itself in the education of a conscious attitude to nature, allows you to spread knowledge about the important historical role of Chinese traditional clothing, as well as create the ground for the further development of Chinese culture in general and Chinese clothing culture in particular.