The Evolution of the Image of the Enemy on the Pages of the Magazine "Mir Bozhiy" at the Turn of the XIX-XX Centuries.

Mikheev Dmitry Vladimirovich ORCID: 0000-0001-9263-0234 PhD in History Associate Professor; Department of General History; A.I. Herzen Russian State Pedagogical University Senior Researcher; Scientific Research Laboratory 'Center for Integrated Study of Regional Security Problems' of Pskov State University 191186, Russia, Saint Petersburg, nab. Moika River, 48 Tankred85@mail.ru Other publications by this author

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the situation in the world was extremely turbulent, with a series of major military conflicts hinting at an approaching international catastrophe. In this situation, the process of identifying "enemies" and "allies" in the upcoming global confrontation was in full swing in the international arena. For the Russian Empire, which had long borders in Europe and the East, it was important to monitor the rapidly changing balance of power, identifying the weaknesses of its neighbors and direct competitors. Any printed socio-political publication, including the weekly magazine Mir Bogyi, tried to cover the most important international events, providing its readers with the latest information about the life and political situation in the leading world powers, primarily those that shared common borders or claimed a prominent role in regions where national interests were represented. the interests of the Russian Empire.

The Russian pre-revolutionary press, as the main source on the history of the formation of the image of the "other" in the Russian public consciousness, has repeatedly become the subject of scientific study. O. V. Kochukova and S. A. Kochukov explored in their publications, based on popular satirical publications, the image of the Ottoman Empire in the caricature of the period of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. ^{[1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6]}. Caricature images as a source of perception of the "other" in the Russian public consciousness of the second half of the 19th – early 20th century were studied in their works by T. A. Filippova, P. Baratov and E. O. Starovoitova. ^{[7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13; 14; 15]}. The formation of the image of the Far Eastern empires of China and Japan, in the context of the so–called. the myth of the "yellow peril" in the Russian public consciousness at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. studied I. O. Ermachenko, V. E. Molodyakov, I. V. Ermolaev, T. M. Kudryavtseva, Ya.S. Guzey, V. I. Dyatlov, O. S. Konovalova, V. V. Suvorov, L. V. Zhukova, A.V. Lukina, Sun Zhingqing and A. S. Titarenko ^{[16; 17; 18; 19; 20; 21; 22; 23; 24; 25; 26; 27; 28; 29; 30; 31; 32; 33; 34; 35; 36; 37; 38; 39]}. L. V. Antonova studied the peculiarities of reflecting the image of Great Britain in the Russian pre-revolutionary press and the perception of this image in British publications of the same period ^{[40; 41]}. The peculiarities of the formation of the image of an "enemy" and an "ally" in the Russian pre-revolutionary press are presented in the research of V. V. Frolov. ^{[42; 43; 44; 45; 46; 47; 48; 49; 50; 51; 52]}.

In this article, we will consider the evolution of the image of the "enemy" on the pages of the magazine "The World of God" at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries, i.e. during the period of growing international tension in various parts of the world and the formation of alliances on the eve of the First World War. The Government of the Russian Empire, having chosen a more active foreign policy course with the coming to power of Nicholas II, noticeably intensified in the international arena. Under these conditions, the monarchical and liberal press, which includes The World of God, faced the task of introducing the reading public to the main vectors of the state's foreign policy, helping to identify the main threats, enemies and allies in the international arena. Taking into account all the intricacies of alliances and numerous (often secret) agreements concluded at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, newspapers and magazines faced the task of not only familiarizing the public with the main trends in the international arena, but also, if possible, forming public opinion of a publication–oriented audience.

The first issue of The World of God was published in January 1892 and very soon it became one of the most popular thick magazines of the Russian Empire. Positioning itself as a literary and socio-political publication, the magazine was primarily focused on the liberal-minded part of society, and its circulation in its best years reached 18 thousand copies ^{[53, p. 63]}. The World of God published individual articles, literary novelties, and critical notes prepared by both domestic and foreign authors. In addition, the latest news was published in the "At Home" and "Abroad" sections, including highlights from the domestic and Western press.

Which countries and subjects were given the most attention on the pages of the magazine? Among the standard rubles in the section on events abroad, we can see regular publications (most often without specifying a specific author) on the situation in Great Britain, Germany, France, and less often there are publications on Italy and the United States. Against the background of increasing tension in the Far East, there are publications about the situation in the Qing Empire and Japan. Another marker indicating the growing interest in a particular issue are extensive publications that have the character of traveler's notes or large analytical material divided into several parts for publication in several issues of the journal. Such publications usually appear in connection with the growing interest in certain international events. Every year, more and more scientific and popular scientific articles appeared in the journal, which were of interest to a wide range of readers, both young and more mature ^{[53, p. 67]}. The volume of the publication increased, while its focus also changed. If the magazine was initially positioned as a literary and popular science publication, then as the audience grew, it gradually took shape into a socio-political and literary publication.

The earliest publications of 1892-1895 did not pay much attention to international politics. Most of the notes on life abroad were devoted to describing the peculiarities of cultural and scientific life, special attention was paid to the women's movement in the West and the development of the education system abroad and in Russia. The situation is changing against the background of the crisis that arose in the Far East during the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895. Already in the autumn issues of the magazine for 1894, we find notes "On the Korean War" and "The International Peace Congress" ^{[54, pp. 228-230, 236-238]}.

The image of China and Japan is diametrically opposed on the pages of the publication, despite the fact that both states were adjacent to the Russian Empire in the Far East and often appeared in publications in the context of the so-called "yellow threat" ^{[31, pp. 120-121; 32, p. 38]}. In relation to China, the myth of the "yellow peril" most often appears as a threat posed by cheap labor ^{[55, pp. 178-196]}. The authors of the publication were afraid of the large mass of people in the Qing Empire, the extreme diligence of the Chinese and their unpretentiousness: "In the struggle for existence between a yellow and a white person, the advantage is on the side of yellow, unless ... the Chinese are not constrained by the law in their studies and actions" ^{[55, pp. 182-185]}. At the same time, Chinese workers, having appeared in the Russian Amur region, were perceived as a necessary phenomenon: "the Chinese are inevitably necessary" ^{[56, P. 258]} and "one cannot live without the Chinese" ^{[57, P. 128]}, they wrote in travel essays published in the magazine over the years.

Militarily, China posed no serious threat.: "Only General Yuan-shi-kai's 10,000-strong army is ... in exemplary order, except that instead of 10,000 soldiers, there were only 7,000" ^{[58, p. 245]}. For the Chinese themselves, "military glory has absolutely no value" ^{[59, p. 69]}. Unlike the Qing Empire, Japan sees formidable military potential. The country has a huge army trained in the European manner, a first-class fleet, and a staff of "naval officers also leaves nothing to be desired" ^{[60, p. 70]}.

If Qing China serves as a model of "immobility and stagnation" ^{[61, P. 38]}, Japan under Emperor Meiji appears to be a country that "in a short time occupied a prominent place in the concert of European powers in East Asia" ^{[62, P. 46]}. Following the foreign press, the authors of The World of God agree that Japan is capable of assuming the role of a "school teacher" for Asian peoples, demonstrating an example of success in the process of modernization and integration of Western knowledge ^{[63, pp. 79-80]}.

A special interest in the region and the turbulent events near the Far Eastern borders of the Russian Empire, as already noted, has been present since the mid-1890s, but the greatest interest in Chinese affairs arose at the end of the century against the background of the failure of reform policies and the outbreak of the Boxer Rebellion. These events led to the fact that Chinese subjects are represented in most issues of the publication for 1898-1901. Only after the suppression of the uprising, by 1902, interest in it was gradually fading. The failure of the Hundred Days of Reform policy was perceived in the publication as a victory for the "Old Chinese Party." In the context of the confrontation between the great powers, this was beneficial to Russia ^{[64, pp. 31-32]}, since the young emperor Guangxu could turn "to the British and Americans to carry out reforms" ^{[65, P. 27]}. The boxer rebellion that followed these events only worsened the situation for Beijing. The country was ravaged and subjected to foreign intervention, China "could not resist a handful of Europeans, despite a huge army" ^{[62, p. 60]}. Condemning the actions of the rebels, the authors of the publications of the "Peace of God" note with particular indignation the behavior unworthy of "civilized" peoples, manifested by the coalition army of eight powers that captured the capital ^{[67, pp. 51-52]}.

After the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion, references to those events will periodically appear on the pages of the publication. The article, entitled "Letters from China" by V. V. Korsakov, mentions the beginning of another unrest in the country. "Despite the isolated and temporarily successful" actions of the rebels, a new revolutionary movement in China should not be feared, since over the past three years, "the Beijing government has consistently strengthened with European-trained troops ... who will always cope with scattered and undisciplined rebel detachments" ^{[68, p. 62]}.

The image of Japan in these years stands a little in the shadow of Chinese events, however, notes dedicated to the land of the rising sun periodically appear on the pages of the magazine, contrasting with descriptions of China. Gradually, the Chinese threat is giving way to the Japanese threat. A foreign press review for December 1902 noted the increased influence of Japan, especially the activity of the Japanese in Manchuria, "under the control of Russia," and Korea, where "the number of Japanese merchants significantly exceeds the number of Russians" ^{[63, P. 79]}.

Already with the outbreak of hostilities in 1904, new extensive materials and analytical notes on Japan appeared, where the authors reflect on the causes of the conflict, the Japanese military potential and the missed opportunities of Russian diplomacy. In a publication included in the content of the May 1904 issue of the magazine, the author notes that "this is not a wild country like Abyssinia, which, armed with European weapons, beat the Italians."… We have before us a cultured people who have made a grandiose reform, who have calmly and consciously embarked on the path of universal culture" ^{[69, p. 5]}. Like other authors, he complains that in previous years St. Petersburg relied on friendship with China, rather than with "a powerful island monarchy that will play an outstanding political role in the Great Ocean in the near future" ^{[69, p. 7]}.

One of the most common stories in the monthly issues of The World of God is, of course, events in the UK or related to London's international politics. Despite the obvious criticism, especially against the background of the crisis around the Boer republics, the image of the United Kingdom is still not so clear. Many publications highlight the successes and leadership of the British in matters of economics, production and the introduction of new technologies, culture, science and education often evoke complimentary reviews, which contributes to the formation of a positive image of the state. The example of Great Britain is more often used as a reference model for comparison and imitation in many matters.

However, London's colonial policy is most often condemned. The only rare exception against this background is the seizure of Sudan: "The conquest of Sudan and its final liberation from the barbaric hordes of the Mahdists undoubtedly belong to the outstanding events of recent times.… From this point of view, the British undoubtedly rendered a service to the entire civilized world by breaking the power of the Machists and putting an end to violence and barbarism" ^{[70, pp. 28, 31]}.

The actions of the British in South Africa are assessed quite differently. In the March 1896 issue of The World of God, in the foreign events section, there is a note about the events in Transvaal that took place during New Year's Week, the so-called Jameson Raid. In the note, the Boers are presented as victims of the ongoing British expansion in the region. The British intervention in the affairs of the Boer Republic was not motivated by the desire to protect the Uitlanders: "As interest in Transvaal wealth increased in England, rumors about the unbearable situation of the British in Transvaal intensified in the English press" ^{[71, p. 283]}. On the other hand, already in the May issue of the same year it is noted that the English order and culture in South Africa bring "the light of knowledge, industrial progress and freedom as an integral result of the legal order" ^{[72, pp. 270-271]}.

With the outbreak of hostilities in southern Africa, the magazine regularly published notes on the course of the Anglo-Boer War itself, as well as on the Boers, as the main opponent of the British. In November 1899, L. Lange's translated note on the Boers and the origins of their conflict with the British appeared ^{[73, pp. 37-42]}. The special emphasis in the note is again placed on the fact that the British, even based on existing conventions, do not have the slightest right to interfere in internal Boer affairs. In the article "South African Drama", the author explicitly points out that despite the fact that the Boers were the first to start hostilities, preparing for them since 1895, their war against the British is fair and essentially defensive ^{[74, p. 48]}. Describing the course of military operations, the author of the publication notes that the probability of continuing the war is not so high, since military operations with the arrival of British reinforcements should enter the second phase, already associated with the British offensive, and their first serious victories should allow negotiations to begin so as not to damage British "national pride" ^{[74, p. 49]}.

The March 1900 issue contains a note on events in England and attempts to justify a new conflict with the Boers. As a justification, the words of Joseph Chamberlain, one of the main ideologists of the conflict, are cited that "the war was necessary, just and right" ^{[75, p. 47]}. Karl Kautsky's translated article on the Anglo-Boer War was reprinted in the same issue of the magazine. In the last issues of 1900 in the magazine, we increasingly find reports about the life of the civilian population during the war and the "tragedy of the little people." In the issues of 1901-1902, there are notes on the fate of Boer prisoners and the consequences of the war for Britain in economic, political and moral terms. For example, in the first issue of 1901, a brief description of a British article about a visit to a prisoner-of-war camp on St. Helena Island is reprinted. There are many old people and children among the prisoners who are living in extremely cramped conditions and an unusually destructive climate. The general conclusion that is conveyed in the text is: "not such facts, of course, can force the enemies of England to come to terms with her" ^{[76, p. 61]}. It was thanks to such publications that the authority of Britain as a civilized colonizer waging a just war in the colonies was debunked, despite all attempts by the British authorities to prove the opposite. In the 2nd issue of the magazine for 1903, we find in a note on the political situation in Great Britain a mention that the South African War was a "big mistake", but its course proved the tremendous energy, steadfastness and determination of the British people ^{[77, p. 55]}.

Even by spreading Western civilization in their colonial possessions, the British often won't solve all the problems. A vivid example of the shortcomings of the British colonial system is given in a note on the Indian native intelligentsia. The emphasis in the publication is on the fact that two worlds continue to exist in the colonies: "at the top is the English official, civil and military world, which has all the privileges and is fully provided with a good salary and pension, at the bottom is the native intelligentsia," which is treated with "undisguised disdain and intolerance" ^{[78, p. 31]}.

Another reason to reconsider the attitude towards Britain was the death of Queen Victoria in January 1901. And already in the February issue, an article dedicated to the queen sums up her brilliant reign. However, the whole text suggests that with Victoria's death, the decline of British power is also coming, and the country is entering a protracted crisis in the new century, a colonial, military, economic and political one that it will have to overcome with great difficulty ^{[79, pp. 37-43]}.

Other powers are often given much less attention, and their images displayed on the pages of the publication are less multifaceted.

The French theme is present in almost every issue, but it is very difficult to find serious judgments about Paris's politics or criticism of its foreign policy. The main subjects are socio-political life, the struggle for women's rights, culture, science and university education. The only plot that is often repeated in a negative way is the Dreyfus case, which is repeatedly mentioned on the pages of the publication. France is thus not presented to the reader even as a potential opponent of Russia in the international arena, allied relations with the French Republic are strong, despite domestic political upheavals and international crises.

The situation is a little more complicated with Germany. Berlin's foreign policy has become quite aggressive and unpredictable since William II came to power. In this regard, publications appear in a number of issues of the journal trying to explain the policy of the German Empire at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries, identifying the potential threat posed by it to universal peace and tranquility, as well as Russian foreign policy interests. To a large extent, in the period under review, the image of the German Empire correlates with the personality of Emperor William II. In a note dedicated to the speeches of the German kaiser, the author notes the pomposity and complacency of the German ruler, however, on the other hand, painting the image of a self-satisfied enemy, and it is in this role that Germany appears by this time, including on the pages of the "World of God", the author notes that there are many warnings in the emperor's speeches: "In Wilhelm's speeches convey the idea of... turning Germany into a first-class maritime power. Apparently, he is not at all satisfied with the role of guardian of the empire created by his predecessors...". The Kaiser often speaks of "the great tasks of the army and navy, which should spread the greatness of the German name in remote seas..." ^{[80, p. 47]}. The April 1903 issue of the magazine contains excerpts from the National Review on the psychological portrait of William II. The German emperor is presented in the note as an extremely unusual and fickle person, he "can simultaneously commit the most contradictory acts and express thoughts and feelings of the most opposite nature," "at the same time he is both an "Anglophile" and an "Anglophobe." "In his relations with France, Holland, Russia, and other countries, the emperor shows the same opposite feelings; he is both friend and foe at the same time" ^{[81, p. 76]}.

The colonial policy of the German Empire is another target for criticism from the pages of The World of God. Thus, it is the German troops who appear in critical notes about the excesses of European troops during the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion ^{[66, pp. 51-52; 67, p. 54]}. In the March 1904 issue, one can find an article about the unrest in German South-West Africa, describing the shortcomings of German colonial policy. One of the reasons for the unrest is the "poor selection of colonists." "There are especially many completely unreliable elements among the white colonists, who often arouse not only the indignation but also the contempt of the natives by their behavior. In addition, the local colonial authorities often do not rise to the occasion and, by their inept, tactless and often cruel treatment of the natives, incite these latter against themselves." "The extraordinary cruelty is particularly striking... the European not only resembles the savage, but even sometimes surpasses him" ^{[82, pp. 70-71]}.

The Italian kingdom is often not seen as a serious opponent on the pages of the publication, even despite the militarism developed in the country. The article "Preaching Peace in Europe", published in 1896, analyzes the activities of numerous peace societies in various countries. The author notes that "Italy, which suffers the most from militarism, serves as a real breeding ground for anti-militarist societies" at the present time. There is a rapid growth of such societies in Germany, as if hinting at one of the most militarized countries in Europe ^{[83, pp. 322-323]}.

It must be admitted that the Italians generally dispelled fears of a serious threat from their side back in the mid-1890s. the absolutely disastrous Abyssinian campaign, the course of which was also reflected in the pages of the publication. Speaking about the Italian colony in Africa, the author of a note published in the February 1896 issue ironically notes that despite their extremely "modest beginnings," the Italians "dubbed their colony on the Red Sea with the ancient name of Eritrea, and this name obviously aroused their most rosy dreams, since the Italian patriots from that moment on They only thought about how to become a firm foot in Africa and expand their possessions" ^{[84, p. 282]}. The author considers the entire Italian policy in Abyssinia (Ethiopia) to be a failure that has led the Italian government into a dead end. The attempt to deceive the Ethiopian ruler Menelik II is presented as a diplomatic incident, overconfidence and dishonesty towards the African ruler. On the battlefield, after the first setbacks, the Italians "national dignity does not allow them to retreat, to continue the African campaign means to completely exhaust the country, which is already exhausted under the weight of weapons and taxes. The enemy suddenly turned out to be much stronger than the Italians had expected, and the situation of the Italians became quite critical" ^{[84, p. 285]}. The author is not sure about the outcome of the military campaign, but believes that these events are good because they "will convince Italy of the harm of colonial conquests" ^{[84, p. 285]}. The article clearly demonstrates the weakness of the Italians and their unsupported excessive ambitions. Italy is considered as a state too weak to take part in the colonial partition of Africa. It is noteworthy that the article appeared in the February issue of the magazine, and on March 1 the battle of Adua took place, which ended with the complete defeat of the Italian expeditionary force.

Austria-Hungary and Italy, as Germany's junior partners, generally do not appear so often in front of the reader on the pages of the magazine. At the same time, the sporadically emerging image of Austria-Hungary, like France, is more often described in neutral tones, with rare exceptions, such as an interesting passage in a note about language problems in Norway: "In Austria, the language dispute, which has recently become very acute, is related to issues of racial and political character. There is a deep antagonism between a Protestant German, a Slav, or a Czech Catholic" ^{[85, p. 44]}. Thus, Austria-Hungary appears as a weak opponent, preoccupied with internal problems.

The image of the Ottoman Empire is traditionally presented in an exceptionally negative way. Turkish themes do not appear so often on the pages of the publication; the main reason for discussing events in the Ottoman Empire is the Armenian pogroms committed in the mid-1890s. For several years, the theme of "Turkish atrocities" and the "beating" of the Armenian people has been present on the pages of the publication ^{[84, p. 288; 86, p. 213-214; 87, P. 30]}.

Finally, the image of the United States, which, due to its remoteness and political isolation in the Western Hemisphere, does not appear so often on the pages of The World of God, appears rather in a neutral light. Washington's policy is not always clear, and the main conflict with American participation, which allows us to determine in general terms the image of the United States as a potential ally or threat in the international arena, is the events of the Spanish–American War and partly the Boxer Rebellion in China.

The reason for the American intervention in the "Cuban events" was, according to the authors of the publication, the extremely cruel behavior of the Spanish authorities towards the local population: "Spain now has to pay for the offenses and brutalities that were carried out on its behalf" ^{[88, P. 24]}. Speaking about the state of the American fleet, the author notes that "there are rumors that the United States has new means of defense at sea that are not yet known to Europeans ... the Spanish-American war will have to be of great importance for European fleets" ^{[88, p. 25]}. Reflecting on the country's military potential in an article published in the June 1898 issue of the magazine, the author notes that "militant fervor easily engulfs the American nation and there is no doubt that despite the complete absence of militarism, it will still be able to stand up for itself when needed" ^{[89, p. 34]}.

In a September 1898 note on the outcome of the Spanish-American War, it is noted that the United States acted in an extremely unusual way, as the winners had not done before: "The peace treaty does not say a word about monetary contributions... therefore, one can be sure that the peace treaty will not weigh too heavily on Spain's shoulders, but her pride will have to to suffer greatly, as there is no doubt that its role as a colonial power has ended..." ^{[87, pp. 31-32]}. And here, about the seizure of the Philippine Islands by the Americans: "whatever the personal benefits that the Americans pursued by declaring war, they will nevertheless render a great service to the civilized world by putting an end to the kingdom of monks on the Philippine Islands and destroying the arbitrariness prevailing there" ^{[87, p. 33]}. It is noteworthy that a few years later, in the 8th issue of the magazine for 1902, a note about the atrocities of American soldiers in the Philippines appeared among the foreign press reviews: "The investigation revealed facts that involuntarily cause shudders. American soldiers and officers committed atrocities in the Philippines worthy of the Middle Ages, and although they try to justify themselves by dealing with the natives ... nevertheless, the public conscience is outraged and demands exemplary punishment of the perpetrators" ^{[90, p. 61]}. All this, according to the author, is a stain on modern Western civilization.

Summing up, we note that the image of the enemy in the international arena formed on the pages of the World of God generally correlates with the main directions of the foreign policy of the Russian Empire at the turn of the XIX–XX centuries.

If the image of Qing China in the magazine "The World of God" was ambiguous and rather negative, then the image of Japan for a long time was in the shadow of Chinese issues, Japanese subjects were more associated with the formation of a positive image of a power that had embarked on the path of progress. However, after the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion, the Japanese military threat is becoming more tangible.

Great Britain is represented on the pages of the magazine as the strongest world power, a direct competitor of the Russian Empire in many international issues. The main marker accompanying the British theme on the pages of the magazine is the conflict with the Boers. The events of the turn of the 19th–20th centuries are undermining the power of London, the era of British rule is gradually coming to an end, symbolically coinciding with the end of the Victorian era.

A lot of attention is paid to French and American events on the pages of the publication, but France is perceived as a union state, and the image of the United States is largely neutral. Americans are presented as a rather progressive, but great nation focused on the Western Hemisphere, which often does not pose a direct threat to Russian interests in the world. On the one hand, the United States brings the benefits of civilization to the backward Spanish colonies, but on the other hand, it also shows its "bestial essence" there.

Germany, led by William II, appears to be a clear threat in the international arena. The authors of the magazine largely associate the aggressive and dangerous policy of the German Empire in the international arena with his character and aspirations. Italy and Austria-Hungary, following in the wake of Berlin's policy, are often not considered serious opponents in the international arena, even despite Italian militarism. Rome showed weakness by fighting against Abyssinia, and it is extremely difficult for the Italians to restore their authority at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. The negative image of the Ottoman Empire, whose dependence on Germany is increasing, is traditional for the Russian press and persists in the period under review and on the pages of the "World of God".